http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl Reading in a Foreign Language January 2025, Volume 37, No. 1 ISSN 1539-0578 pp. 1–40 https://hdl.handle.net/10125/67480 Examining the relationship between self-regulated learning strategies and reading comprehension in Chinese and English among primary school students in mainland China: An extension of Tse, Lin, & Ng (2022) Ji Qi University of Macau Macau Barry Lee Reynolds University of Macau Macau Xiaoke Bai University of Macau Macau Abstract This extension study investigates the relationship between self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies and first language (L1) Chinese and second language (L2) English reading test performance among 190 primary six students in mainland China, building upon the findings by Tse et al. (2022). Confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the acceptable construct validity of the SRL strategy use questionnaire used by Tse et al. (2022). Structural equation modeling was then conducted to examine the direct relationships between variables. The results reveal a direct and positive relationship between L1 Chinese planning strategies and L2 English planning strategies, as well as between L1 Chinese monitoring strategies and L2 English monitoring strategies. Furthermore, L1 Chinese SRL strategies directly and positively predicted L1 Chinese reading test performance, while L2 English SRL strategies had a direct and positive effect on L2 English reading test performance. However, L1 Chinese SRL strategies did not have a significant predictive effect on L2 English reading test performance. Additionally, the performance on the L1 Chinese reading test had no significant effect on L2 English reading test performance. These findings underscore the importance of integrating L1 Chinese and L2 English curricula in mainland China and fostering communication and collaboration between L1 Chinese and L2 English teachers. Additionally, the study suggests several directions for further research in this area. Keywords: self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies, bilingual reading comprehension performance, second language learning, primary education readers, L2 English, L1 Chinese Qi, Reynolds, & Bai: Examining the relationship between self-regulated learning strategies and reading… Reading in a Foreign Language 37(1) 2 Introduction Reading is an essential and fundamental skill not only within the school setting but also in various aspects of life (Al Roomy, 2022). The ability to read is also a critical capability in social life (Van Den Broek et al., 2005). Therefore, it is vital to cultivate young children’s reading comprehension skills in their primary school stage. However, research has shown that many primary school students are poor at comprehension and achieve below basic levels (Rasinski, 2017). There are various factors that may cause students to have a weakness in their reading comprehension performance such as the learning environment, individual differences, their desire to read, and so on (Westerveld et al., 2020). Specifically, research has indicated that students’ poor reading performance is a result of lack in using effective strategies to monitor, control, and regulate their reading process and their inability to adapt to different reading situations that require the use of different strategies (Dermitzaki et al., 2008; Horner & Shwery, 2002). Hence, it is imperative to understand more about the kind of strategies students are using or not using when reading. Doing so could provide us with information on effective strategies to help students grow as successful readers (Bradley, 2016). Focusing our attention on the utilization of reading strategies by students can encourage learner autonomy. This idea is supported by the English Curriculum Standards for Compulsory Education (2022) in China, which emphasizes the importance of students’ independent adoption of various strategies to self-regulate and self-manage their learning to improve their learning efficiency and learning ability. This emphasis implies that when facing a large amount of reading materials, students should have the ability to self-regulate their reading processes to improve their reading efficiency and reading performance. Self-regulated learning (SRL) plays a critical role in one’s development of lifelong learning skills (Taranto & Buchanan, 2020; Zimmerman, 2002). Adopting SRL Strategies to Improve Students’ Learning Efficiency Many educational researchers have studied self-regulated learning and its contribution to promoting students’ learning efficiency (Dignath & Büttner, 2008; Zimmerman, 1990). SRL refers to the processes in which learners set goals autonomously, select certain strategies for achieving their objectives and self-monitor their learning effectiveness (Zimmerman, 2008). People with elevated levels of self-regulated learning can use SRL strategies to regulate their learning process more systematically (Zimmerman, 2008). As Theobald (2021) indicated, to train and promote learners’ SRL, it is essential to cultivate learners’ SRL strategy use, academic performance, and motivation. SRL strategy use includes the proactive application of cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies (Dent & Koenka, 2016; Pintrich & De Groot, 1990). Learners need to be capable of applying these strategies effectively in various academic tasks (Stebner et al., 2022). Numerous studies have investigated the relationship between primary students’ adoption of SRL strategies and their academic achievement (e.g., Cengiz-Istanbullu & Sakiz, 2022; Lee et al., 2023). For example, research conducted in South Korea indicated that upper primary school Qi, Reynolds, & Bai: Examining the relationship between self-regulated learning strategies and reading… Reading in a Foreign Language 37(1) 3 students’ academic achievement could be positively predicted by their application of SRL strategies (Lee et al., 2023). Another research study conducted in Turkey suggested that primary school students’ academic performance was positively affected by their use of self-regulated learning strategies including planning, goal setting, monitoring and note-taking strategies (Cengiz-Istanbullu & Sakiz, 2022). The results of these studies imply that the application of SRL strategies can be recognized as one of the factors in primary school students’ successful academic achievement. Although many researchers have uncovered that there is a positive relationship between SRL strategies and academic performance, few studies have explored whether SRL strategy use can affect bilinguals’ reading performance (Tse et al., 2022). This is important to consider because the number of bilinguals around the world has been increasing (Afsharrad & Sadeghi Benis, 2017), and this growth of bilingualism could also have a significant impact on young learners’ reading performance in primary schools. Bilingualism exposes children to a wider range of vocabulary and language structures, which in turn may enrich their reading skills and reading comprehension abilities (Andreou, 2021; Giguere & Hoff, 2024). However, few primary schools in EFL contexts such as China have implemented effective teaching methods to improve bilingual education due to the lack of explicit encouragement in educational guidelines (Tse et al., 2019). The lack of such encouragement may lead to English teachers’ neglect of the teaching of bilingual reading comprehension methods, ultimately affecting students’ bilingual reading comprehension performance. Hence, there is an urgent need to study whether certain strategic behaviors can exert a positive impact on primary school students’ bilingual reading performance. Such research can provide valuable insights for the future development of curriculum design in primary education contexts such as China. The Original Study and Motivation for the Current Study One exceptional study conducted by Tse and his colleagues (Tse et al., 2022) investigated the relationships between SRL strategies and bilingual reading comprehension performance among fourth-grade students in Hong Kong. They found students’ use of planning and monitoring strategies while reading in Chinese was positively related to their Chinese and English reading comprehension performance. In addition, students’ use of planning strategies during English reading could positively predict their English reading comprehension performance. They also discovered that if students used planning and monitoring strategies while reading in Chinese, they were more likely to use these strategies when reading in English. Although this study is a pioneer in helping researchers understand the relationship between SRL strategies and bilingual reading comprehension performance in fourth-grade students, it is still limited in certain aspects that require further investigation. The original study could only explain the situation occurring for fourth-graders in Hong Kong. Nevertheless, their study’s results may not be applicable to EFL contexts such as those in mainland China. This indicates a need for further research. There are two main reasons behind this need. Firstly, Tse et al. (2022) indicated that fourth-grade students’ monitoring strategy use in English reading was not associated with students’ English reading comprehension performance. Tse et al. Qi, Reynolds, & Bai: Examining the relationship between self-regulated learning strategies and reading… Reading in a Foreign Language 37(1) 4 (2022) explained that fourth-grade students may not have been able to effectively use monitoring strategies due to their young age because monitoring strategy use requires complicated cognitive operations. To address this limitation requires extension by recruiting participants at a higher cognitive level such as those in the sixth grade. The sixth grade is a crucial period when students tend to make rapid progress in using learning strategies (Law et al., 2008). Additionally, recruiting sixth grade students also supports the recommendation given by Tse et al. (2022) for further investigation of students at the fifth-grade level or above. Therefore, it is imperative to investigate whether sixth-grade students’ adoption of self-regulated learning strategies is related to their bilingual reading comprehension performance. Secondly, Tse et al. (2022) conducted the study in Hong Kong, an international metropolis where both Chinese and English are official languages, and where Western culture goes deep into the society. In contrast, students in mainland China may only be informed of western culture and receive exposure to English or need to communicate in English through textbooks or the Internet (Yu, 2019). Students in Hong Kong can more readily recognize the practicality and significance of learning English compared to the students in mainland China. Moreover, the immediate applicability of English learning is more apparent to Hong Kong students, whereas those in mainland China may not see the need for English skills until much later in life. Past research has also shown that learners’ motivation or learning attitude can exert influence on learners’ self- regulated learning ability (Mohammadi et al., 2023; Ocak & Yamaç, 2013). As SRL strategy use is culturally and contextually dependent, students’ application of these strategies may be influenced by various cultural and contextual factors (Pintrich, 2003). Thus, it is important to study whether there can be a certain degree of change in students’ application of SRL strategies under different contexts and whether such changes would also correspondingly affect students’ bilingual reading comprehension performance. Therefore, in the present study, data on the utilization of SRL strategies and bilingual reading performance of sixth-grade students from mainland China were collected to address this issue and need. By conducting the study with a different participant group and in a different context, the current study can further investigate whether there is a correlation between self-regulated learning strategies and bilingual reading comprehension performance among primary six students in the mainland China context. Literature Review Self-Regulated Learning In the late 1980s, educational psychologists began to define self-regulated learning. Zimmerman (1986, p. 308) conceptualized self-regulated learners as “active participants” who are cognitively, motivationally, and behaviorally regulating their academic tasks. Proactive self-regulated learners can realize the importance of using SRL strategies while completing academic tasks, demonstrate the ability to choose proper strategies which align with their academic objectives, and draw upon self-oriented feedback to assess the effectiveness of their learning processes (Zimmerman, 1990). Therefore, Zimmerman (2000, p. 14) defined SRL as “self-generated Qi, Reynolds, & Bai: Examining the relationship between self-regulated learning strategies and reading… Reading in a Foreign Language 37(1) 5 thoughts, feelings and actions that are planned and cyclically adapted to the attainment of personal goals.” Later, a more detailed working definition of SRL was put forward by Pintrich (2000, p. 453) who pointed out that “SRL is an active and constructive process whereby learners set goals for their achievement first and then monitor, regulate and control their cognition, motivation and behavior to achieve goals, guided and constricted by goals and contextual features of their environment.” Additionally, Zimmerman (2000, p. 16) later proposed a three-phase model of the self-regulatory process, including “forethought, performance or volitional control, and self-reflection phases.” “The forethought phase involves goal setting, strategic planning, and self-motivation beliefs” which are the self-regulators’ expectations of outcomes (Zimmerman, 2000, p. 17). “The performance or volitional control phase” encompasses “self-control” and self-tracking performance which entails attention concentrating and “self-observation” (Zimmerman, 2000, p. 18). “The self-reflection phase” primarily revolves around “self-judgement” and “self- evaluation” (Zimmerman, 2000, p. 21). In this phase, self-regulated learners critically evaluate their own performance, identify the reasons behind their learning outcomes, and subsequently compare the self-monitored information with their set goals (Zimmerman, 2000). According to this model, self-regulated learners can choose effective strategies to reach their goals and will autonomously monitor the process of completing academic tasks. To effectively engage in self-regulated learning processes, learners employ various SRL strategies to initiate, maintain, and adjust their cognitive and behavioral responses to accomplish their learning objectives (Zimmerman & Schunk, 2011). These SRL strategies can be broadly “classified as cognitive strategies and metacognitive strategies” (Theobald, 2021, p. 2). Cognitive strategies refer to learners’ approaches in processing information and solving learning problems during the completion of academic tasks (Zimmerman, 2002). Meta-cognitive strategies are second-order strategies that learners employ to monitor, regulate, and manage their cognition throughout the whole learning process (Zimmerman & Moylan, 2009). Planning, monitoring, and evaluating are three essential types of metacognitive strategies that are integral to learners’ self-regulated learning process (Theobald, 2021). Planning strategies involve learners’ setting concrete learning goals, analyzing learning tasks to activate their prior knowledge, and selecting corresponding strategies to achieve their setting goals before engaging in the learning process; monitoring strategies encompass learners’ ongoing tracking of their learning tasks, including self-checking and self-questioning to ensure their understanding of learning tasks; and evaluating strategies are employed by learners to reflect on the quality and efficiency of the entire learning process after their completion of tasks (Schraw, 1998; Theobald, 2021). Within the classroom context, learners’ active utilization of metacognitive strategies for planning, monitoring and adjusting their learning behaviors and processes, as well as evaluating their own learning outcomes is acknowledged as a pivotal component of self-regulated learning (Pintrich & De Groot, 1990). The Relationship Between Self-Regulated Learning and Academic Performance Qi, Reynolds, & Bai: Examining the relationship between self-regulated learning strategies and reading… Reading in a Foreign Language 37(1) 6 Previous studies have consistently shown a positive correlation between SRL and academic performance (e.g., Pintrich & De Groot, 1990; Zimmerman & Pons, 1986). Specifically, this positive relationship has been observed across various age groups and academic domains (e.g., Bai & Wang, 2021; Lee et al., 2023; Nodeh, 2021). For example, Nodeh (2021) discovered a positive association between the adoption of SRL strategies by university students in Iran and their performance in English courses. Bai and Wang (2021) conducted a study in Hong Kong, which demonstrated that the utilization of SRL strategies by secondary school students significantly improved their English writing competence. Moreover, Lee et al. (2023) conducted a study in South Korea, revealing that domain-specific SRL strategies adopted by primary school students exhibited a positive predictive effect on their academic performance across multiple subjects, encompassing writing, reading, and mathematics. However, despite the substantial evidence indicating a positive link between SRL strategy use and learning outcomes in numerous studies, it is important to note that some other studies have found no significant association between the application of SRL strategies and academic performance (e.g., Dent & Koenka, 2016; Mahmoodi et al., 2014). These contrasting findings suggest that additional factors may influence the “correlation between self-regulated learning and academic performance” (Dent & Koenka, 2016, p. 461). Dent and Koenka (2016) proposed that learners’ grade level, the nature of learning tasks in specific subjects, and strategies employed to complete these tasks may influence academic performance. Similarly, Mahmoodi et al. (2014) posited that various factors, including different educational systems, the quality of learning materials, learners’ socio-economic status, and teachers’ instructional practices are critical factors that may also impact the correlation between the utilization of SRL strategies and students’ learning outcomes. Therefore, it is essential for educators and researchers to consider the intricate interplay between SRL strategy use and learning outcomes within specific domains as well as exploring how learning environment could impact the relationship between learners’ application of SRL strategies and their academic performance. Studies on these issues have the potential of providing educators with valuable information that could enrich their teaching approaches and empower students in utilizing SRL strategies, ultimately leading to improvements in their learning outcomes. Self-Regulated Learning in L1 and L2 Reading SRL is of paramount importance in the reading process, functioning as a fundamental metacognitive process that empowers learners to actively engage in reading tasks, monitor their reading process, and evaluate their own reading performance (Woolley, 2011). Skilled self- regulated readers can use a variety of SRL strategies effectively before, during and after specific reading tasks. Many previous studies have supported that SRL strategies can enhance reading performance (e.g., Huang et al., 2019; Lau, 2020; Mohammadi et al., 2023; Mohammadi et al., 2020; Phakiti, 2003; Yapp et al., 2023). For instance, Phakiti (2003) found positive correlations between the adoption of cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies and EFL reading performance among university students in Thailand. Lau (2020) examined the impact of SRL strategy Qi, Reynolds, & Bai: Examining the relationship between self-regulated learning strategies and reading… Reading in a Foreign Language 37(1) 7 instruction on Chinese reading performance among secondary school students in Hong Kong, demonstrating a positive impact of such instruction on students’ Chinese reading performance. A study by Huang et al. (2019) in Taiwan using pre-test and post-test assessments discovered that the application of metacognitive strategies positively influenced college students’ Chinese reading performance. Yapp et al. (2023) observed significant improvements in Dutch college students’ L2 reading test scores following effective SRL reading strategy use as the students were not able to transfer L1 reading strategies to L2 reading automatically. Mohammadi et al. (2020) investigated the relationships between SRL strategies (including cognitive and metacognitive strategies), EFL college students’ problem-solving ability and their reading performance in Iran, uncovering that the adoption of SRL strategies positively influenced students’ reading comprehension ability and their problem-solving ability. Additionally, Mohammadi et al. (2023) found that SRL strategies positively affected Iranian primary school students’ EFL reading comprehension. See, however, studies by Alsamadana (2009) and Nejati (2022) that did not find a correlation between SRL strategy use and reading performance. While the studies reviewed above examined the effect of SRL strategy use just on L1 or L2 reading performance, a relatively fewer number of studies have investigated the relationship between SRL strategy use and bilingual reading performance, especially among primary school students (Tse et al., 2022). Moreover, considering that the effectiveness of utilizing SRL strategies in L1 reading may vary compared to L2 reading due to certain language-specific factors (Hanno & Surrain, 2019), understanding the contribution of SRL strategies to reading performance in both L1 and L2 contexts is of paramount importance because researchers can identify similarities and differences in the effectiveness of these strategies across languages. Also, understanding the contribution of SRL strategies to bilingual reading can provide valuable insights into the transferability of SRL strategies between languages, thereby informing instructional practices for educators to provide targeted support to learners in both L1 and L2 reading. The present study seeks to fill this gap by exploring the relationship between the adoption of SRL strategies and bilingual reading achievement among primary school students. This investigation is significant as it sheds light on the importance of self-regulated learning strategy use in bilingual reading among primary school students, potentially providing valuable instructional insights for educators to promote the bilingual literacy development of primary school students. Although researchers have observed the productive application of SRL strategies during children’s years of primary school (Vandevelde et al., 2015; Zimmerman, 2002), there is no consensus reached regarding whether primary school students can use SRL strategies effectively. Zimmerman (1990) has indicated that primary school students may encounter difficulties in effectively using SRL strategies, including cognitive and metacognitive strategies. However, subsequent studies have revealed that children as young as 4 to 5 years of age can already start to develop their cognitive skills and meta-cognitive awareness (Kolic-Vehovec & Bajsanski, 2007; Schneider, 2008). By the age of 11 to 12 their cognitive and meta-cognitive strategy use undergoes rapid development, and they can adopt strategies more proficiently (Kolic-Vehovec & Qi, Reynolds, & Bai: Examining the relationship between self-regulated learning strategies and reading… Reading in a Foreign Language 37(1) 8 Bajsanski, 2007; Schneider, 2008). Furthermore, the utilization of SRL strategies may also vary among students at different ages due to potential age-related differences that may impact the effectiveness of SRL strategy development (Alvi & Gillies, 2023; Tse et al., 2022). Therefore, it is imperative to conduct further research; hence our study. Self-Regulated Learning and Reading in Learning Contexts in China The Confucian-based Chinese learning context, which promotes teacher-directed learning, has been criticized for encouraging students to become passive learners (Tan, 2015). However, SRL is increasingly emphasized within the Chinese educational context (Lau & Chen, 2013). Researchers also have gradually paid more attention to students’ utilization of SRL strategies while reading. Law et al. (2008) found that fifth graders and sixth graders in Hong Kong exhibited a strong awareness of using SRL strategies while reading for comprehension. Research in Hong Kong has also demonstrated that SRL strategies positively influence reading performance. For instance, Lau and Ho (2016, p. 159) found a positive relationship between the adoption of SRL strategies such as “control strategies” and “reading performance” among primary school students in Hong Kong. Meanwhile, they also indicated that complicated ecological, cultural, and educational contexts may influence students’ SRL strategy use. Additionally, research indicated that SRL strategy instruction delivered by teachers can also affect students’ reading comprehension performance (e.g., Teng, 2020) In contrast, while studies in Hong Kong have examined the impact of SRL strategies on reading performance, “evidence from mainland China is still lacking” (Qi, 2021, p. 3). Li and Gan (2022) conducted a study in mainland China and discovered that the utilization of SRL reading strategies positively impacted college students’ reading performance. Moreover, Qi (2021) found that SRL strategies positively impact the reading performance of middle school and high school students in Shanghai. The study demonstrated that students had a strong awareness of utilizing SRL strategies to comprehend and retain information. In contrast to studies conducted in Hong Kong, the scarcity of studies exploring the impact of SRL strategies on reading performance in mainland China mainly prioritized middle school students, high school students or college students rather than primary school students. Comparison Between Hong Kong and Mainland China Based on Hong Kong’s biliterate and trilingual policy, Hong Kong has long considered both Chinese and English as major languages because of its socioeconomic and cultural background and development (Tse et al., 2019; Wong, 2020). The Hong Kong government and parents prioritize bilingual reading literacy in primary education, striving for proficiency in both Chinese and English language from an early age (Tse et al., 2010; Tse et al., 2017; Tse et al., 2019; Wang & Kirkpatrick, 2020). Liu and Chung (2023, p. 1) further highlighted the positive impact of the “home literacy environment” in Hong Kong on children’s English language acquisition and L2 reading skills. Additionally, teachers in Hong Kong commonly integrate L1 and L2 languages and create a supportive bilingual context in their teaching (Cheng, 2022). Qi, Reynolds, & Bai: Examining the relationship between self-regulated learning strategies and reading… Reading in a Foreign Language 37(1) 9 In contrast, bilingual education in mainland China, primarily at the university level, emerged from dissatisfaction with traditional English teaching methods (Gao & Ren, 2019). Additionally, bilingual education in mainland China is less commonly implemented in primary education compared to Hong Kong and lacks formal recognition under the Language Law of the People’s Republic of China (Gao & Ren, 2019; He, 2011). As Gao and Ren (2019, p. 268) reported, Chinese, “as the official language”, must be used in the “public domains” and serve as the primary spoken and written language. However, English is merely a compulsory subject mainly learned by students for examination purposes (Yu, 2019; Zong, 2024). English is not commonly used by students in daily life outside of English classes in mainland China (Yu, 2019), potentially limiting opportunities for primary school students to develop bilingual reading proficiency. Overall, Hong Kong’s educational landscape exhibits a concerted effort to foster bilingualism and biliteracy through policies, parental support, and instructional practices that bridge L1s and L2s, whereas mainland China lacks a bilingual environment that promotes children’s bilingual reading proficiency (Cheng, 2022; Gao & Ren, 2019; Wong, 2020). Koda’s (2005) cross- language transfer facilitation model suggested that bilingual children tend to employ metalinguistic abilities acquired from their L1 learning in their L2 learning. Recent research has also highlighted bilingual children’s automatic interconnection between the two languages even in the monolingual contexts (Baoqi et al., 2020; Bosma et al., 2023). Nevertheless, in the field of cross-language transfer, linguistic threshold theory suggests that L1 reading performance may not significantly predict L2 reading performance if learners have not achieved adequate L2 linguistic knowledge (Alderson, 1984; Villacanas de Castro, 2016). In the context of mainland China, students encounter challenges stemming from the linguistic differences between Chinese and English languages, as well as limited opportunities to practice English (Bolton et al., 2020; Yu, 2019; Zhang, 2024). Consequently, students are compelled to master the English language, yet may not possess sufficient English linguistic knowledge to rely upon when dealing with English language reading tasks (Xu et al., 2021). Thus, it is uncertain the extent to which children in mainland China can effectively establish meaningful connections between their L1 reading and L2 reading comprehension. Influential Factors of L1 Self-Regulated Learning Strategies with L2 Reading Although evidence supports the transferability of SRL strategies between L1 and L2 reading in the Hong Kong bilingual context (Tse et al., 2022), the effect of SRL Chinese reading strategies on English reading remains uncertain in the monolingual mainland China context. Previous research showed that different educational environments in China may influence learners’ development of SRL (Gan, 2009; Lau & Chen, 2013). According to the social cognitive view of SRL, learners’ choice of SRL strategies may be influenced by the nature of academic tasks and the learning environment (Rose et al., 2018; Zimmerman, 1989). When self-regulated learners encounter identical types of academic tasks, they are more likely to opt for similar types of SRL strategies to effectively deal with these tasks, thus the strategies employed by readers in L1 reading tend to exhibit similarities in L2 reading (Khaghaninejad, 2020; Zimmerman, 1989). Research also shows that bilingual children in Hong Kong can successfully transfer L1 reading Qi, Reynolds, & Bai: Examining the relationship between self-regulated learning strategies and reading… Reading in a Foreign Language 37(1) 10 skills to L2 reading (Bosma et al., 2023; Siu & Ho, 2015; Tse et al., 2022). However, some scholars have noted that students mainly in a Chinese context with limited bilingual exposure like Taiwan, struggle to transfer L1 metacognitive reading strategies to L2 reading due to their limited L2 linguistic knowledge (Jou, 2015; Lin & Yu, 2015). Nevertheless, while researchers in many Chinese regions have drawn attention to the application of Chinese SRL strategies in L2 reading (Jou, 2015; Siu & Ho, 2015; Tse et al., 2022), there is little research studying whether students in the mainland China context, where Chinese is the major medium and with little bilingual exposure, can transfer Chinese SRL reading strategies to English reading. Additionally, Koda (2005) suggested that insufficient L2 knowledge would hinder L2 learners from applying their L1 reading strategies to comprehend L2 reading texts, as specific skills and strategies are developed to address the unique linguistic features of each language (Koda, 1990). Xin et al. (2018) emphasized that two factors, English language linguistic knowledge and test-oriented reading approach, may influence Chinese students’ metacognitive strategy use in their English reading. Additionally, Birch and Fulop (2021) argued that the reading strategies employed in L1 reading may not necessarily be applicable to L2 reading due to differences in word recognition and decoding, morphological and syntactic analysis, grammatical structures, discourse processing as well as cultural awareness contained in the L1 and L2 reading texts. Consequently, readers cannot simply or easily assimilate L1 reading strategies in their L2 reading processes if they fail to find interrelations between L1 reading and L2 reading (Barzegar & Fazilatfar, 2019; Birch & Fulop, 2021). Therefore, the extent of the transferability of L1 reading strategies to L2 reading may be influenced by contextual differences and language-specific factors. Research Hypotheses This study aims to address the research gap through an extension study aimed at answering the overarching research question: What are the relationships between SRL strategies (i.e., planning strategies and monitoring strategies) applied in L1 Chinese and L2 English reading and the L1 Chinese and L2 English reading test performance of primary six students in mainland China? Additionally, the present study aims to extend the findings of the original study by examining and testing the following hypotheses (Tse et al., 2022): Hypothesis 1: The utilization of SRL strategies (i.e., planning strategies and monitoring strategies) in L1 Chinese reading comprehension significantly influences their application in L2 English reading comprehension. Hypothesis 2: Proficient employment of SRL strategies (i.e., planning strategies and monitoring strategies) in both L1 Chinese and L2 English reading predicts performance in the corresponding language’s reading test. Qi, Reynolds, & Bai: Examining the relationship between self-regulated learning strategies and reading… Reading in a Foreign Language 37(1) 11 Hypothesis 3: Effective implementation of L1 Chinese SRL strategies (i.e., Chinese planning strategies and Chinese monitoring strategies) predicts performance on the L2 English reading test. Hypothesis 4: Performance on the L1 Chinese reading test correlates significantly with performance on the L2 English reading test. Method Participants A convenience sampling technique was used to recruit 190 primary six students from a primary school in Harbin City, Heilongjiang Province, mainland China (male, n = 96; female, n = 94; age, Myears = 11.05, SDyears = .21). English was taught as a subject and Chinese was used as a medium of instruction at the school. Four classes out of 6 classes in the 6th grade were randomly chosen to participate in this study. Before joining the study, the participants did not receive any instruction in self-regulated learning strategies. Instruments SRL strategy use questionnaire. The same 13-item SRL strategy use questionnaire used in Tse et al. (2022) was adopted for the present study to measure the frequency of participants’ application of SRL strategies. Their questionnaire was “based on Zimmerman’s (2000) cyclical phases model” and included some items from previous bilingual reading comprehension studies (Tse et al., 2022, p. 3263). Similarly, the 13-item questionnaire was used to investigate how often participants use SRL strategies in L1 Chinese and L2 English reading. Specifically, the items within the questionnaire correspond to the frequency of participants’ utilization of planning strategies and monitoring strategies before, during, and after reading (Tse et al., 2022). All the items were “rated on a 4-point Likert scale” (Tse et al., 2022, p. 3263). The original SRL strategy use questionnaire (Appendix A) was in English. This questionnaire was translated by one of the researchers into Chinese. The Chinese version of the questionnaire (Appendix B) was examined by four language teachers in the primary school, who provided feedback on the Chinese version of the questionnaire and ensured that the questionnaire was suitable for grade six students. Chinese reading comprehension test. The Chinese reading comprehension test (Appendix C) assessed students’ reading comprehension of different genres of Chinese texts. Zhang et al. (2022) reported an acceptable reliability result for 339 fifth graders and 347 sixth graders in two public primary schools in Suzhou and Wenzhou, China (Cronbach’s α = .725). The test is comprised of five texts of which each is accompanied by two to five multiple choice questions, equaling 20 questions in total. These reading questions evaluate Chinese reading comprehension skills in terms of grasping the gist, identifying supporting details, and making logical inferences based on the given text. Qi, Reynolds, & Bai: Examining the relationship between self-regulated learning strategies and reading… Reading in a Foreign Language 37(1) 12 English reading comprehension test. The English reading comprehension test was the reading section of the B1 Preliminary for Schools test targeted for second language learners aged 11 to 14 (CambridgeESOL, 2020), which was designed to assess students’ English reading comprehension of different genres of English texts. The official website of Cambridge English reported an acceptable reliability result of the reading section of the B1 Preliminary for Schools (Cronbach’s α = .89). The test consists of 6 parts with 32 questions in total. These reading questions assess students’ understanding of the main idea, identification of detailed meaning, inference of the writer’s attitude or opinions and mastery of grammatical knowledge based on the given text. Procedures This is a nonexperimental, quantitative extension study that uses the identical methodology as the original study to obtain new data with a different participant group and in a different context (Porte & McManus, 2019). The main purpose of this study is not to critically question the methodology and results of the original study in the light of the new data (Porte & McManus, 2019). The methodology for this study was reviewed by the Panel on Research Ethics and the Sub-Panel on Social Science & Humanities Research Ethics of the Research Committee of the University of Macau and approved with number SSHRE23-APP048-FED. Both the sixth graders who participated in the study and their parents provided written informed consent before the sixth graders participated in the study. The students were informed that the results of the reading comprehension tests were solely intended for research purposes and would not impact their final grades. Additionally, the confidentiality of these results was emphasized. Prior to completing the questionnaires and reading comprehension tests, students were instructed to respond based on their actual experiences, with the assurance of strict confidentiality for the results. Students could withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. The entire procedure spanned two days, with all participants completing both the Chinese and the English reading tests and corresponding SRL strategy use questionnaires in their respective classrooms. The first author was responsible for distributing the reading comprehension tests and corresponding questionnaires. To control for any potential factors created by sequence and order effects, a randomization method was applied. Two out of four participating classes were randomly selected to sit the Chinese reading comprehension test and complete the Chinese SRL strategy use questionnaire on the first day. The remaining two classes were asked to sit the English reading comprehension test and complete the English SRL strategy use questionnaire on the first day. On the second day, each class engaged with the tasks for the alternate language. Each day followed a consistent sequence. Participants first completed the respective reading comprehension test. Upon its completion, they were administered the respective SRL strategy use questionnaire. Students were given 45 minutes to complete each reading comprehension test and 20 minutes for each SRL strategy use questionnaire. A 10-minute break was provided between the completion of a reading comprehension test and SRL strategy use questionnaire. Qi, Reynolds, & Bai: Examining the relationship between self-regulated learning strategies and reading… Reading in a Foreign Language 37(1) 13 Another 10-minute break was provided between the completion of the questionnaire and students’ return to their regular lessons. For data collection, OMR sheets were used to record students’ answers for both the test and the questionnaire. Given that the Chinese and English SRL strategy use questionnaire items were the same, it was emphasized to the students that their responses should correspond to the language of the reading comprehension test they had completed on that day. Data Analysis and Results Descriptive Statistics Descriptive statistical analysis was done to examine the items of the questionnaires and the reading comprehension tests. Items’ skewness and kurtosis scores should fall within [-3, 3] and [- 10, 10] respectively, which suggests an acceptable range of univariate normality (Kline, 2023). As shown in Tables 1 and 2, participants’ frequency of the application of SRL strategies in English reading comprehension ranged from 1.84 to 3.01. Their adoption of SRL strategies in Chinese reading comprehension ranged from 1.78 to 3.16. The results showed that primary six students in mainland China used SRL strategies in Chinese and English reading comprehension with moderate frequency. The mean scores for the Chinese reading comprehension test and English reading comprehension test are shown in Table 3 (M = 14.55, SD = 1.94; M = 18.27, SD = 3.19). Values for skewness and kurtosis in each reading comprehension test fell within the acceptable ranges, which shows that the scores of each test reached a normal distribution (Kline, 2023). Table 1. Descriptive statistics of items in the English SRL strategy use questionnaire Item M SD Skewness Kurtosis 1 2.75 .959 -.092 -1.065 2 2.78 .881 -.396 -.476 3 2.75 .990 -.377 -.866 4 2.94 .874 -.320 -.793 5 2.91 .936 -.368 -.862 6 2.97 .869 -.388 -.703 7 3.01 .829 -.470 -.415 8 2.84 .931 -.264 -.895 9 2.85 .956 -.351 -.862 10 2.91 .907 -.381 -.736 11 2.75 .853 -.019 -.818 12 2.97 .851 -.366 -.674 13 1.84 1.001 1.059 0.39 Qi, Reynolds, & Bai: Examining the relationship between self-regulated learning strategies and reading… Reading in a Foreign Language 37(1) 14 Table 1. Descriptive statistics of items in the Chinese SRL strategy use questionnaire Item M SD Skewness Kurtosis 1 2.68 .958 -.092 -.928 2 2.71 .906 -.396 -.693 3 2.91 .907 -.377 -.736 4 2.88 .955 -.320 -.853 5 3.15 .914 -.368 -.652 6 3.08 .860 -.388 -.665 7 3.15 .875 -.470 -.315 8 2.73 .958 -.264 -.925 9 2.86 .982 -.351 -1.001 10 2.91 .949 -.381 -.959 11 2.87 .917 -.019 -.734 12 3.16 .858 -.366 -.306 13 1.78 .954 1.072 .158 Table 2. Descriptive statistics of the Chinese and English reading comprehension test Reading Comprehension Test N Total Score M SD Skewness Kurtosis Chinese reading Comprehension Test 190 20 14.55 1.942 -.609 .470 English reading Comprehension Test 190 32 18.27 3.190 -.769 2.984 Correlation Analyses A Pearson correlation coefficient was computed to investigate the possible relationships among four types of SRL strategies and bilingual reading test performance. As seen in Table 4, all SRL strategy factors were positively correlated with one another (0.28 ≤ r ≤ 0.56, p < 0.01). In addition, all types of SRL strategies were positively correlated with Chinese and English reading test performance (0.27 ≤ r ≤ 0.69, p < 0.01). Finally, there was a positive correlation between Chinese reading test performance and English reading test performance (r = .30, p < 0.01). The higher correlation coefficient observed between L2 English planning strategy use and L1 Chinese reading test performance, compared to the correlation between L2 English planning strategy use and L2 English reading test performance, may be attributed to variations in the format and genres of the articles used in both reading comprehension tests. Both tests include Qi, Reynolds, & Bai: Examining the relationship between self-regulated learning strategies and reading… Reading in a Foreign Language 37(1) 15 multiple choice questions, while the L2 English reading test additionally includes six fill-in-the- blank questions. Moreover, both tests assess students’ comprehension of expository and narrative writing, whereas the L2 English reading test incorporates some descriptive writing. Hence, it is plausible that the inclusion of additional descriptive writing and the assessment format involving additional six content-based fill-in-the-blank questions within the L2 English reading test contributed to the stronger correlation observed between students’ utilization of L2 English planning strategies in the L1 Chinese reading test compared to their utilization in the L2 English reading test. Qi, Reynolds, & Bai: Examining the relationship between self-regulated learning strategies and reading… Reading in a Foreign Language 37(1) 16 Table 3. Correlation analysis for SRL strategy use and bilingual reading test performance CPS CMS EPS EMS CRTP ERTP CPS 1 .51** .56** .35** .69** .27** CMS 1 .28** .44** .61** .30** EPS 1 .31** .44** .38** EMS 1 .38** .47** CRTP 1 .30** ERTP 1 Note. **p < .01; CPS = Chinese planning strategies, CMS = Chinese monitoring strategies, EPS = English planning strategies, EMS = English monitoring strategies, CRTP = Chinese reading test performance, ERTP = English reading test performance Confirmatory Factor Analyses According to the exploratory factor analysis (EFA) conducted by Tse et al. (2022), the Chinese SRL strategy use questionnaire and the English SRL strategy use questionnaire yielded a consistent two-factor structure each. The analysis identified two common factors including planning and monitoring in both valid questionnaires. In the questionnaire assessing the utilization of SRL strategies in Chinese reading, factor 1 (planning) includes 8 items and factor 2 (monitoring) includes 5 items. In the questionnaire assessing the utilization of SRL strategies in English reading, factor 1 (planning) includes 5 items and factor 2 (monitoring) includes 5 items. Item 4, item 9 and item 11 were removed from the SRL strategy use questionnaire for English reading due to their failure to meet the criteria set by the exploratory factor analysis (Tse et al., 2022). In the present study, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed by using R statistical version 4.3.1 with the lavaan package (Rosseel, 2012) to examine if these two measurement models can fit the data from the present study well and to check the construct validity of both measurement models. Considering all the goodness-of-fit indices together, the CFA results for the Chinese SRL strategy use questionnaire indicated that the two-factor model can fit the data well: x² = 87.69, df = 64, x²/df = 1.37, CFI = 0.925, TLI = 0.909, RMSEA = 0.044, SRMR = 0.057. Also, the results of CFA manifested that the two-factor model for English SRL strategy use showed adequate fit indices: x² = 52.27, df = 34, x²/df = 1.54, CFI = 0.907, TLI = 0.877, RMSEA = 0.053, SRMR = 0.058. Therefore, both measurement models had a relatively satisfactory construct validity. Additionally, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were calculated to examine the reliability of these two questionnaires. Cronbach’s alpha above 0.7 shows reliable items within a construct (Cortina, 1993). As presented in Table 5, the Chinese and English SRL strategy use questionnaires are reliable (Cronbach’s α = .758; Cronbach’s α = .702). Table 4. CFA results for the two measurement models (N = 190) Measurement Model x² df x²/df CFI TLI RMSEA (90% CI) SRMR Cronbach’s α Chinese SRL strategy use measurement model 87.69 64 1.37 0.925 0.909 0.044 (0.02- 0.07) 0.057 0.758 Qi, Reynolds, & Bai: Examining the relationship between self-regulated learning strategies and reading… Reading in a Foreign Language 37(1) 17 English SRL strategy use measurement model 52.27 34 1.54 0.907 0.877 0.053 (0.02- 0.08) 0.058 0.702 Recommended threshold ≤ 2 ≥ .90 ≥ .90 ≤ .08 ≤ .08 ≥ .70 Note. CFI= Comparative Fit Index; TLI=Tucker-Lewis Index; RMSEA= Root Mean Square Error of Approximation; SRMR= Standardized Root Mean Square Residual. Structural Equation Modelling Analysis Structural equation modelling (SEM) analysis was conducted by using R statistical version 4.3.1 with the lavaan package. According to Tse et al. (2022), a hypothesized SEM model to investigate the direct relationship between SRL strategy use and bilingual reading comprehension test performance was constructed. Based on the hypothesized structural model in Figure 1, direct effects between Chinese planning strategy use and English planning strategy use, as well as between Chinese monitoring strategy use and English monitoring strategy use were proposed. Additionally, two types of Chinese SRL strategy use were hypothesized to directly impact Chinese reading comprehension test performance, and two types of English SRL strategy use were hypothesized to have a direct impact on English reading comprehension test performance. Moreover, Chinese planning and monitoring strategy use were hypothesized to have a direct effect on English reading comprehension test performance. Finally, Chinese reading comprehension test performance was hypothesized to exert a direct effect on English reading comprehension test performance. The hypothesized structural model constructed in the original study should be evaluated first to see whether the model can fit the current data well using the following goodness-of-fit indices: the nonsignificant chi-square value (p > 0.05), x²/df ≤ 2, CFI ≥ .90, TLI ≥ .90, RMSEA ≤ .08, SRMR ≤ .08 (Boyer et al., 2012; Browne & Cudeck, 1993; Hu & Bentler, 1999). Then, path analysis can be conducted to investigate the complicated relationship among those variables. As shown in Table 6, the hypothesized structural model can fit the data well: x ²= 7.616, df = 4, x²/df = 1.904, CFI = 0.991, TLI = 0.965, RMSEA = 0.069, SRMR = 0.047. Furthermore, Figure 2 shows the graphical description of the results of the SEM model with path coefficients. Firstly, the results showed that the Chinese planning strategy use positively affected English planning strategy use (β = .55, p < .001). Also, Chinese monitoring strategy use positively affected English monitoring strategy use (β = .44, p < .001). Secondly, the results suggested that the Chinese planning strategies and Chinese monitoring strategies positively predicted Chinese reading performance respectively (β = .51, p < .001; β = .35, p < .001). Additionally, English planning strategies and English monitoring strategies positively predicted English reading performance respectively (β = .26, p < .001; β = .37, p < .001). Qi, Reynolds, & Bai: Examining the relationship between self-regulated learning strategies and reading… Reading in a Foreign Language 37(1) 18 Thirdly, Figure 2 illustrated that there was no relationship between Chinese planning strategies and English reading comprehension test performance as well as there was no relationship between Chinese monitoring strategies and English reading comprehension test performance (β = -.08, p = .40; β = .07, p = .38). Finally, there was no relationship between the performance of Chinese reading test and the performance of English reading test (β = .05, p = .57). Table 5. Goodness-of-Fit Indices of the SEM Model x² df x²/df CFI TLI RMSEA (90% CI) SRMR Indices 7.62 4 1.90 0.991 0.965 0.069 (0-0.14) 0.047 Recommended threshold ≤ 2 ≥ .90 ≥ .90 ≤ .08 ≤ .08 Figure 1. Hypothesized SEM model of SRL strategies and bilingual reading performance Note. CPS = Chinese planning strategies; CMS = Chinese monitoring strategies; EPS = English planning strategies; EMS = English monitoring strategies; CRTP = Chinese reading test performance; ERTP = English reading test performance. Qi, Reynolds, & Bai: Examining the relationship between self-regulated learning strategies and reading… Reading in a Foreign Language 37(1) 19 Figure 2. Final SEM model for depicting the impacts of four types of SRL strategies on bilingual reading test performance Note. ***p <.001, *p <.05; Solid lines and dotted lines represent significant and non-significant relationships respectively Discussion In Tse et al.’s (2022) study, four hypotheses were proposed. This extension study aimed to investigate how the four hypotheses apply to the mainland China context among sixth-grade students. Hypothesis 1 suggests that the L1 Chinese planning and L1 Chinese monitoring strategies used during Chinese reading comprehension would have a direct impact on their corresponding use in L2 English reading comprehension. According to the results of this study, it was found that L1 Chinese planning strategy use had positive effects on L2 English planning strategy use. L1 Chinese monitoring strategy use also had positive effects on L2 English monitoring strategy use, which suggests that when sixth graders in mainland China use SRL strategies to comprehend, plan and monitor their cognitive processes during L1 Chinese reading, there is a higher likelihood that they will employ identical strategies when engaged in L2 English reading. This result is consistent with the results reported by Tse et al. (2022), who explained that self-regulated learners tend to choose similar strategies when dealing with identical types of academic tasks (Rose et al., 2018; Zimmerman, 1989), and thus learners exhibit a propensity for employing identical strategies in both L1 and L2 reading. These results are also supported by previous studies that found readers tended to employ similar reading strategies when reading in both L1 and L2 (Khaghaninejad, 2020; Lin & Yu, 2015). Hypothesis 2 suggests that the adoption of planning and monitoring strategies when reading texts in both L1 Chinese and L2 English would have a direct influence on the respective reading test performance in each language. In terms of the results of this study, both L1 Chinese planning and monitoring strategies had a significant predictive effect on L1 Chinese reading test performance. Similarly, it was found that both L2 English planning and monitoring strategies were also significant predictors of L2 English reading test performance. Qi, Reynolds, & Bai: Examining the relationship between self-regulated learning strategies and reading… Reading in a Foreign Language 37(1) 20 These findings indicate that the higher the frequency of sixth graders’ application of the planning and monitoring strategies during respective L1 Chinese and L2 English reading, the higher their scores in the respective reading comprehension test. The results are further supported by previous research results showing adoption of SRL strategies exerts a significantly positive impact on reading performance (Huang et al., 2019; Lau, 2020; Mohammadi et al., 2020; Phakiti, 2003; Yapp et al., 2023). Additionally, these findings mostly align with the original study apart from the association between L2 English monitoring strategy use and L2 English reading test performance. The disparate findings across both studies could be attributed to variations in the ages of the participants in each study. As children grow older, the effectiveness of their utilization of SRL strategies may exhibit variability, even with a small age difference of merely 1 or 2 years (Alvi & Gillies, 2023; Tse et al., 2022). The consistent findings between this study and the original study provide additional support for the previous studies that found frequent application of SRL strategies can enhance students’ reading achievement (Kolic-Vehovec & Bajsanski, 2007; Law et al., 2008; Zimmerman, 1990). Tse et al. (2022) also found a nonsignificant relationship between the adoption of L2 English monitoring strategies and L2 English reading test performance. They attributed this result to the complexity of monitoring strategies, suggesting that learners around the age of 10 might encounter challenges in employing such strategies effectively to monitor their English reading processes. However, in the current study, the participants were primary six students approximately 11 or 12 years old, at a period characterized by rapid progress and development in the use of SRL strategies (Kolic-Vehovec & Bajsanski, 2007). Therefore, the result of this study further demonstrated that primary six students can use English monitoring strategies effectively to enhance their L2 English reading comprehension performance. Hypothesis 3 suggests that the application of L1 Chinese planning and monitoring strategies would directly impact the performance in the L2 English reading test. It was found in the present study that L1 Chinese planning and monitoring strategies had no significant predictive effect on the L2 English reading test performance. This null result can be elucidated by considering the influence of contextual factors on SRL strategy use. Within the context of mainland China, Chinese is the primary language that students use in their academic and daily lives throughout their upbringing, whereas English is a mandatory subject introduced during their primary school period (Gao & Ren, 2019; Wong, 2019). English learning for students in mainland China primarily takes place within the confines of the English classroom, with limited exposure to authentic English communication contexts beyond structured English lessons (Yu, 2019; Zong, 2024). For most mainland Chinese students, the primary motivation to learn English revolves around examination preparation or obtaining academic degrees, rather than genuine interest in the English language and culture or use in their daily lives (Wong, 2019; Yu, 2019). Hence, from the perspective of mainland Chinese students, Chinese language differs from English language, and Chinese reading comprehension varies from English reading comprehension. Qi, Reynolds, & Bai: Examining the relationship between self-regulated learning strategies and reading… Reading in a Foreign Language 37(1) 21 In such an environment, students may have less extensive English linguistic knowledge for English reading compared to Chinese reading, including inadequate vocabulary knowledge, slower word recognition, and insufficient morphological and pragmatic understanding. Consequently, their utilization of SRL strategies in Chinese and English reading may be specific to each language (Jou, 2015; Lin & Yu, 2015; Xin et al., 2018). In such a context, participants of the present study may have attempted to apply similar SRL reading strategies from L1 Chinese to L2 English reading. However, their inadequate English linguistic knowledge may pose challenges in flexibly and effectively transferring and assimilating these strategies. Differences in vocabulary, morphology, syntax, grammatical structures, and overall language processing between the two languages could further complicate this process (Birch & Fulop, 2021; Jou, 2015). Consequently, participants’ application of L1 Chinese SRL strategies could not yield significant effects on their L2 English reading performance. The result concerning the relationship between L1 Chinese SRL strategy use and L2 English reading test performance is not consistent with the results of Tse et al.’s (2022) study. The discrepancy may be explained by the distinct language contexts and educational backgrounds between mainland China and Hong Kong (Lau & Chen, 2013; Yu, 2019). In Hong Kong, the biliterate and trilingual policy implemented in 1997 emphasized that residents should be proficient in both Chinese and English language, which were recognized as official languages (Tse et al., 2019). Children in Hong Kong typically commence learning both Chinese and English formally during their kindergarten years, starting at approximately 3.5 years old (Liu & Chung, 2023). Teachers in Hong Kong tend to establish a connection between L1 and L2 in their instruction in order to mitigate excessive reliance on L1 and minimize the linguistic gap between L1 and L2 (Cheng, 2022). Additionally, parents in Hong Kong place emphasis on fostering bilingual education and may use both Chinese and English to communicate with their children at home (Liu & Chung, 2023; Wang & Kirkpatrick, 2020). Conversely, in mainland China, children primarily focus on learning Chinese in kindergarten, and systematic English instruction begins in primary grade three (Wong, 2019). The Chinese language plays a dominant role in their daily communication, while English is only regarded as a subject, offering few opportunities for real-life English practice outside of the English classroom. As a result, students in Hong Kong have more chances to be exposed to bilingual contexts and have a greater awareness of the practical necessity of learning English, while mainland Chinese students have minimal exposure to bilingual environments. Given that bilingual children have been shown to have “English and Chinese meta-linguistic awareness”, which facilitates them to effectively transfer L1 reading skills to L2 reading (Baoqi et al., 2020, p. 657), Hong Kong students likely exhibit a higher ability to transfer L1 Chinese SRL reading strategies successfully to L2 English reading compared to their mainland Chinese counterparts. Hypothesis 4 postulates that L1 Chinese reading performance would have a direct impact on L2 English reading performance. However, the present study revealed that L1 Chinese reading performance did not predict L2 English reading test performance for the primary student participants from the mainland China context. This null result can be attributed to the Qi, Reynolds, & Bai: Examining the relationship between self-regulated learning strategies and reading… Reading in a Foreign Language 37(1) 22 language context in mainland China. Although the Chinese government implemented policies to promote Chinese-English bilingual education in certain Chinese universities, no such policies have been extended to primary or middle schools in mainland China (Gao & Ren, 2019; He, 2011). However, the Chinese government legally mandated that the Chinese language should be the primary spoken and written language in the public domains and education (He, 2011). Meanwhile, English is treated as a subject in mainland China for which most students only practice and use within the EFL classroom. In mainland China, the separation between the Chinese and English languages suggests that students may not receive adequate exposure to English linguistic knowledge in comparison to Chinese. This dichotomy also implies that reading in Chinese and reading in English are viewed as two distinct skills in the mainland China context. Moreover, research on cross- linguistic transfer has explored the disassociation between L1 Chinese reading and L2 English reading comprehension, highlighting the significance of language-specific processes (Genesee & Nicoladis, 2007). Mainland Chinese students’ perception of Chinese and English reading as distinct skills, coupled with potential deficiencies in acquiring adequate L2 linguistic knowledge, result in a limited positive impact of their L1 Chinese reading on their L2 English reading. This observation aligns with the linguistic threshold theory, which emphasizes that learners with limited L2 linguistic knowledge cannot benefit significantly from their L1 reading performance in their L2 reading performance (Alderson, 1984; Villacanas de Castro, 2016). The failure to validate Hypothesis 4 does not support Tse et al.’s (2022) study. The inconsistency of the result can be understood through “Koda’s (2005) cross-language transfer facilitation model”, which asserts that bilingual children tend to automatically employ “metalinguistic” abilities acquired from their L1 learning in their L2 learning (Baoqi et al., 2020, p. 657). This is because bilingual children can interconnect the two languages in their brains; even if they are in monolingual contexts, the other language can be activated automatically and cannot be suppressed selectively (Bosma et al., 2023). Drawing on the comparison between the Hong Kong and mainland China contexts, it becomes evident that Hong Kong students have more chances to be exposed to a bilingual Chinese and English environment at home and school. In contrast, mainland Chinese students may lack sufficient opportunities for such exposure. As a result, Hong Kong students demonstrate the ability to transfer language skills in both Chinese and English reading comprehension tests, while mainland Chinese students exhibit limited ability to transfer from Chinese reading to English reading in cross-language contexts (Baoqi et al., 2020; Xu et al., 2021). Implications The findings of the present study provide two practical implications for higher-primary teachers in mainland China. These implications can guide teachers in creating effective bilingual learning environments and enhancing primary school students’ adoption of SRL strategies in bilingual reading comprehension. Firstly, considering the growing significance of multilingual proficiency in the contemporary globalized society, it is strongly Qi, Reynolds, & Bai: Examining the relationship between self-regulated learning strategies and reading… Reading in a Foreign Language 37(1) 23 recommended that teachers in mainland China emphasize bilingual education. Teachers themselves should recognize the significance of bilingual education and strive to create a more bilingual context so that students have more opportunities for acquiring English linguistic knowledge and integrating Chinese and English literacy. Specifically, teachers can combine Chinese and English curriculum to encourage students to use both Chinese and English language resources for gaining knowledge (Wang & Lee, 2023). For example, teachers can dedicate specific class time to teaching and practicing language skills in each language, such as reading, writing, listening, and speaking and ensure that language instruction is balanced between both languages throughout the curriculum. Moreover, teachers should design language exchange activities where students can practice using both Chinese and English languages to explore and appreciate the similarities and differences between both languages. Language exchange activities can take various forms, such as discussions, presentations, or research assignments, in which teachers can remind students to integrate both languages they possess to leverage their linguistic repertoire. Secondly, with the premise of developing a bilingual teaching environment, teachers in mainland China can integrate explicit instruction and scaffolding techniques to promote the use of SRL reading strategies in both L1 Chinese and L2 English reading (Tse et al., 2022). Additionally, Chinese teachers and English teachers should collaborate and provide students with opportunities to practice similar SRL strategies in both languages (Lo et al., 2022). For instance, teachers can explicitly link the SRL strategies used in Chinese reading to their counterparts in English reading comprehension. By emphasizing the similarities and connections between the strategies, teachers can help students strengthen their ability to transfer Chinese SRL strategies to English reading, thereby enhancing students’ overall reading achievement in both languages. Moreover, teachers can support students through a gradual process, starting with explicit instruction and scaffolding, and then gradually encouraging independent use of SRL strategies. This can be facilitated through small group or individual reading comprehension activities where students apply SRL strategies in both Chinese and English tasks. Teachers can provide feedback and support as needed, fostering students’ autonomy in utilizing SRL strategies. Conclusion This study aimed to extend the findings of a study conducted by Tse et al. (2022) by recruiting participants from a different grade level and context. Specifically, it sought to explore the associations between the utilization of SRL strategies and bilingual reading comprehension test performance among primary six students in mainland China. The findings revealed that sixth graders in mainland China demonstrated the ability to apply identical SRL strategies in both L1 and L2 reading comprehension. Furthermore, the utilization of SRL strategies in L1 Chinese and L2 English reading positively correlated with their respective reading test performances. However, it was observed that the employment of L1 Chinese SRL strategies among primary six students in mainland China did not predict their L2 English reading test performance. Additionally, performance in L1 Chinese reading tests showed no Qi, Reynolds, & Bai: Examining the relationship between self-regulated learning strategies and reading… Reading in a Foreign Language 37(1) 24 impact on L2 English reading test scores. By comparing the outcomes of this study with the original research, it was noted that differences in language contexts and educational backgrounds may influence students’ capacity to transfer L1 Chinese SRL strategies and L1 Chinese reading comprehension skills to L2 English reading comprehension. This underscores the significance of integrating L1 Chinese and L2 English language skills among primary six students in mainland China. While this study provides valuable insights into the relationship between SRL strategies and bilingual reading comprehension of students in the mainland China context, it is important to acknowledge that this study has certain limitations. Firstly, this study was conducted in a single primary school in a specific area of mainland China, which may restrict the generalizability of the findings to other primary schools in different regions of the mainland Chinese context. Future research should include primary schools from various areas of mainland China to compare the results, thus providing a broader understanding of how instructional approaches can be effectively implemented in different educational contexts in mainland China. Secondly, this study focused solely on investigating the direct relationship between SRL strategy use and bilingual reading test performance, without exploring potential mediating effects. Future research could incorporate the exploration of mediating variables like motivation and self-efficacy to further examine the underlying factors that may influence the relationships between self-regulated learning strategies and bilingual reading test performance. Investigating motivation and self-efficacy as potential mediators can provide insights into the motivational and affective processes that underlie the effectiveness of SRL strategies in bilingual reading, offering valuable implications for optimizing language learning and instruction. Thirdly, this study mainly concentrated on participants’ adoption of one component of SRL strategies, namely, meta-cognitive strategies. Future research should consider investigating students’ adoption of other types of SRL strategies such as cognitive strategies and affective strategies to gain a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the effects of SRL strategies on bilingual reading comprehension (Viberg et al., 2020). Fourthly, the original study did not provide the bilingual reading comprehension tests used. As a result, alternative valid Chinese and English reading comprehension tests were selected as instruments in the present study, which differed slightly in item format and reading genres. This discrepancy may have had a subtle impact on the results of the correlation analysis. Future research should ensure greater consistency in the assessment of bilingual reading comprehension and minimize potential confounding factors. Addressing these limitations in future research would contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the impact of self-regulated learning strategies on bilingual reading test performance. Declarations Qi, Reynolds, & Bai: Examining the relationship between self-regulated learning strategies and reading… Reading in a Foreign Language 37(1) 25 The methodology for this study was reviewed by the Panel on Research Ethics and the Sub- Panel on Social Science & Humanities Research Ethics of the Research Committee of the University of Macau and approved with number SSHRE23-APP048-FED. Authors’ Contributions: JQ: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Validation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Data Curation, Writing – Original Draft, Visualization; BLR: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – Original Draft, Writing – Review & Editing, Supervision, Project Administration; XB: Writing – Review & Editing. Availability of data and materials: Materials are published as appendixes and data is available upon a reasonable request from the second (corresponding) author. 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