Bananas and People in the Homeland of Genus Musa: Not just pretty fruit Jean Kennedy Research Abstract Bananas, perhaps the most recognizable of fruits, are no- ible pulp without pollination; it does not guarantee seed- where more genetically diverse than in the southwest Pa- lessness, which depends on additional mechanisms that cific, where parthenocarpic fruit originated according to are at least partly independent of parthenocarpy (Argent recent biomolecular evidence. In the wider Indo-Malesian 1979, Simmonds 1959: 28-9, 1962). As vegetatively prop- area, homeland of the genus Musa L., understanding the agated parthenocarpic land races spread west through domestication of bananas must include consideration of the area of other Musa species, they were involved in a much greater range of Musa species than just the few complex hybridizations that produced many new land implicated in the parentage of the modern cultivars with races with virtually seedless fruit (see Perrier et al. 2009). seedless fruit. While some of these have been transmitted to the rest of the tropical and subtropical world, Malesia retains the Despite ethnobotanical evidence that the genus has been highest diversity of land races, and nowhere are these valued for many more products than the edible fruit, the more diverse than in Papua New Guinea (see Kennedy role of other products in the process of domestication is 2008, n.d. for further discussion and references). seldom considered. As well as documenting the develop- ment and spread of seedless cultivars, we need to de- Understandably, a great deal of attention has been given velop models of the fundamental Indo-Malesian practices to explicating the genetics and biogeography of the pro- through which the greater range of species and products, cess by which bananas with seedless fruit were domesti- seeds and all, were managed in diverse socio-cultural and cated (Kennedy 2008, n.d.; Perrier et al. 2009, Simmonds environmental circumstances. 1962). My argument here elaborates on points I (and oth- ers) have previously made only in passing: we need to recontextualize understanding of the domestication of Introduction bananas within the frameworks of historical ecology for the Malesian region that are emerging from multidisci- The natural range of the genus Musa L. extends through- out the Indo-Malesian region, in tropical and subtropical areas from Sri Lanka and eastern India, across south Chi- na and Southeast Asia to the southwest Pacific and north- Correspondence ern Australia (Figure 1). There are more than 50 Musa species (Constantine 1999-2008, Häkkinen & Väre 2008), Jean Kennedy, Department of Archaeology and Natural History, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian Na- most of which are large perennial tropical herbs, mainly of tional University, Canberra ACT 0200, AUSTRALIA. lowland areas with high temperature and humidity. jean.kennedy@anu.edu.au The edibility of traditional and modern fruit cultivars trac- es back to parthenocarpic forms that arose in one or two subspecies of Musa acuminata Colla in the southwest Pa- cific, at the eastern extremity of the range of that species and of the genus (Carreel et al. 2002, Perrier et al. 2009). Ethnobotany Research & Applications 7:179-197 (2009) Parthenocarpy in bananas entails the development of ed- Published: July 30, 2009 www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol7/i1547-3465-07-179.pdf 180 Ethnobotany Research & Applications South China India Southeast Asia Southwest Pacific Australia Figure 1. Distribution of genus Musa L. in the Indo-Malesian region. plinary studies of environmental and cultural changes in It follows that the vegetatively propagated parthenocarpic the late Pleistocene and Holocene, and to take a broader bananas from the eastern edge of Malesia spread west view of banana domestication than is usual. Documenting into a world in which other Musa species had already the development of the familiar edible bananas of today been subject to the manipulations of humans, for uses in- has been the main focus of studies of the interactions of cluding medicine, fiber, wrapping material and ritual, as humans and bananas, and this focus is still reflected in well as food. All such uses entail the possibility of selec- most current archaeobotanical discussion. But the utility tive pressures that have little or nothing to do with edibility of a phylogenetic outline of the development of edible ba- of the fruit. These humanly modified plant populations are nanas for the project of improved breeding does not nec- termed ‘cultiwild’ by De Langhe et al. (2009). As we de- essarily give it power to guide prehistoric research. We velop better archaeobotanical tools for investigating the need to know more about bananas than how the fruits prehistoric world of tropical plants, we should keep these were made succulent and seedless. possibilities in mind. The basic proposition of this paper is that the Musaceae as a whole, like ‘cassowaries and kiwis, and big bouquets Ecology and Ethnobotany of of roses’ (Hays 1991:113), have high ethnobiological sa- Indo-Malesian Musaceae lience, independent of forms with edible fruit. In support of this proposition, I explore examples of the very wide range Simmonds (1962:34) described wild Musa species as of uses documented throughout Indo-Malesia. Given that ‘jungle weeds’ of disturbed habitats, such as talus slopes, such uses are widespread and probably reflect ancient unstable hillsides or forest gaps. Disturbance is an inte- practices, it is likely that human selective pressures have gral part of the dynamic growth cycle of the rainforest, pro- affected other aspects of the plants besides the edibility of viding niches for understory plants such as Musaceae (Ar- fruit. If this is correct, then the tendency to equate seedi- gent 1979, Whitmore 1984). When Homo sapiens entered ness with wildness is very misleading. In my hypothetical the world of wild Musa species c. 60,000 years ago, the encounters of early humans and bananas, seediness did niches of these plants and people must have overlapped not matter, and the fruit was probably not the main focus substantially. A growing body of archaeological evidence of attention. To assume otherwise is teleological. shows Pleistocene human presence in forested environ- www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol7/i1547-3465-07-179.pdf Kennedy - Bananas and People in the Homeland of Genus Musa: 181 Not just pretty fruit ments of Island Southeast Asian and the New Guinea re- uses is manifest in compilations of tropical products, such gion (Barker 2005, Barker et al. 2005, Barker et al. 2007, as the invaluable colonial works of Burkill (1935), Heyne Kealhofer 2003, Latinis 2000, Mercader 2003, Pavlides & (1950), Ochse (1977) and Watt (1972), as well as in more Gosden 1994). It is highly likely that early humans were specialist literature on botanical and agronomic aspects especially drawn to forest gaps and may have increased of bananas, such as Purseglove (1975), Simmonds (1959 their extent (Groube 1989). The stately and often spec- and 1962) and publications of the International Network tacular Musaceae are far too conspicuous to have been for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP) overlooked (Figures 2 and 3). Thus began a long period of (e.g., Sharrock 1996). interaction with humans that continues to the present. All parts of the plant are useful, including seedy fruit, inflo- It is well known that Musaceae are very useful. Leaves rescence, leaf, pseudostem, corm and rhizome; they fur- and inflorescences are prominent in many Southeast nish food, fodder, medicine, domestic materials and shel- Asian food markets (Figures 4 and 5), and increasingly in ter. Plants also have ritual and ceremonial significance. metropolitan markets of the First World. The multiplicity of Table 1 lists miscellaneous uses, other than consump- B A C Figure 2. Many Musa species grow to statuesque proportions and dominate the landscape. A, B. The largest is Musa ingens Simmonds, a New Guinea Highlands endemic; C. Ensete glaucum (Roxb.) Cheesman has a wide but scattered distribution from the Eastern Himalayan fringe to New Guinea. (Photos A, B. by Jeff Daniells, Queensland DPI; C. by Shu Suehiro, Kamisu-shi, Japan.) www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol7/i1547-3465-07-179.pdf 182 Ethnobotany Research & Applications A B C Figure 3. The flowers and fruit of many Musa species are conspicuous and appeal to horticulturally-inclined humans as well as to birds and bats: A. Musa basjoo von Siebold ex Y. Iinuma, University of California Botanical Garden, Berkeley; B. Musa ornata Roxb., local nursery, rural central Luzon, Philippines; C. Musa velutina H. Wendl. & Drude, Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew. Photos by the author. Figure 4 (right). In Thai food markets, many parts of Musaceae species are represented: A. Inner core of Musa sp pseudostem is eaten cooked, Chiang Mai; B. Terminal inflorescences are eaten cooked or raw, Chiang Mai; C. Immature fruit of Musa balbisiana Colla eaten as salad, Nong Khai; D. Ripe fruit of Ensete glaucum (Roxb.) Cheesman, A B also eaten raw, Udon Thani. Photos C D by Gianni Bertossa and Christiane Jacquat, Institute of Plant Biology & Department of Pre- and Protohistory, University of Zurich. www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol7/i1547-3465-07-179.pdf Kennedy - Bananas and People in the Homeland of Genus Musa: 183 Not just pretty fruit tion of seedless fruit, of Indo-Malesian Musace- ae. Given the labyrin- thine complexity of liter- ary genres which might refer to bananas, I make no claim that this list is comprehensive in terms of uses or references; it is intended to be exempla- ry. I have revised the no- menclature, where pos- sible, using the extensive cross-referencing of spe- cies names compiled by Constantine (1999-2008). For the sake of brevity, I have somewhat arbitrarily excluded African uses of Musaceae (genus Ensete Horan. is native there, but not genus Musa), while Polynesia and Microne- Figure 5. Leaves are widely used for packaging, especially for food, as in these examples sia are included because of Thai takeaways. Photos by Gianni Bertossa and Christiane Jacquat, Institute of Plant their cultural connec- Biology & Department of Pre- and Protohistory, University of Zurich. Table 1. Miscellaneous uses of banana plants (family Musaceae) in the Indo-Malesian region. Category Part used Use Genus/species Location(s) Citations Food terminal salad/cooked many spp/cvs, especially widespread Arnaud & Horry 1997, Burkill inflorescence/ Musa balbisiana Colla, 1935, Christensen 2002, male bud also Ensete glaucum Dassanayake & Clayton 2000, (Roxb.) Cheesman, De Langhe et al. 2000, Heyne Musa acuminata ssp 1950, Jacquat 1990, Lentfer microcarpa (Becc.) 2003, Noweg et al. 2003, Simmonds and var Ochse 1977, Rumphius 1747, zebrina (Van Houtte ex Simmonds 1956, 1959, Uma Planch.) R.E.Nasution, 2006, Uphof 1968, Watt 1972 Musa campestris Becc., Musa hirta Becc., Musa itinerans Cheesman, Musa lawitiensis Nasution & Supard., Musa nagensium Prain, Musa ornata Roxb., Musa peekelii Lauterb., Musa salaccensis Zoll., Musa velutina H. Wendl. & Drude, Musa violascens Ridl. male flowers cooked edible hybrid cvs PNG Argent 1979 nectar from baby-food Pacific plantain cvs Hawaii Nelson et al. 2006 male flowers dry salt Musa sp PNG Petir et al. 1998 inflorescence www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol7/i1547-3465-07-179.pdf 184 Ethnobotany Research & Applications Category Part used Use Genus/species Location(s) Citations seedy fruit raw/cooked many spp, including E. widespread Anderson 1993, Burkill 1935, glaucum, M. acuminata Häkkinen 2006, Jacquat 1990, ssp, Musa aurantiaca Lentfer 2003, Nguyen 2006, G. Manner ex Baker, M. Noweg et al. 2003, Ochse balbisiana, Musa maclayi 1977, Rumphius 1747, Uma F. Muell. ex Mikl.-Maclay 2006, Yen & Gutierrez 1976 M. peekelii, Musa sanguinea Hook.f., M. velutina, M. violascens raw, sieved pulp M. balbisiana N.E. India Uma 2006 as baby food fruit peels cooked edible cvs Java Ochse 1977 immature raw, cooked, many spp, including M. widespread Christensen 2002, Jacquat seedy fruit pickled balbisiana, M. lawitiensis 1990, Nguyen 2006, Ochse 1977, Simmonds 1956 & 1959, Uphof 1968 pseudostem cooked, processed many spp/cvs, including widespread Burkill 1935, De Langhe et al. for starch, M. balbisiana, Musa 2000, Hendrickx 2007, Heyne famine food flaviflora Simmonds, 1950, Jacquat 1990, Lentfer Musa ingens Simmonds 2003, Liu et al. 2003, Ochse M. itinerans, Musella 1977, Powell 1976, Rumphius lasiocarpa (Franch.) 1747, Sillitoe 1983, Simmonds C.Y. Wu ex Li 1959, Uma 2006, Watt 1972 young leaf- cooked E. glaucum Java Ochse 1977 sheath sucker/shoot cooked many spp/cvs, including Borneo, Christensen 2002, Häkkinen 2006, M. acuminata ssp N E India, Noweg et al. 2003, Ochse 1977, microcarpa and ssp Yunnan Simmonds 1959, Uma 2006 zebrina, M. balbisiana, Musa beccarii Simmonds, M. campestris, M. hirta, M. lawitiensis, M. violascens, M. lasiocarpa corm/rhizome cooked many spp/cvs, including widespread Bailey 1900, Burkill 1935, M. acuminata ssp Massal & Barrau 1956, Mogina zebrina, M. balbisiana 2002, Ochse 1977, Rumphius 1747, Simmonds 1959 ash of whole seasoning edible Musa cvs India Watt 1972 plant Fodder whole plant pig food M. lasiocarpa Yunnan Liu et al. 2003, Long et al. 2008 pseudostem, pig and cattle food edible cvs, E. glaucum, widespread Anderson 1993, Burkill 1935, De stalk of M. acuminata, M. Langhe et al. 2000, Häkkinen & inflorescence balbisiana, M. itinerans, Wang 2007, Häkkinen et al. 2008, and fruit, leaf, Musa yunnanensis Heyne 1950, Lentfer 2003, Nelson rhizome Häkkinen & Wang et al. 2006, Rumphius 1747, Simmonds 1959, Uphof 1968, Watt 1972, Wu & Kress 2000 food for captive edible Musa cvs PNG Sterly 1997 cassowaries Highlands www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol7/i1547-3465-07-179.pdf Kennedy - Bananas and People in the Homeland of Genus Musa: 185 Not just pretty fruit Category Part used Use Genus/species Location(s) Citations outer leaf- elephant food edible Musa cvs India Watt 1972 sheath fruit food for captive M. ingens PNG Sterly 1997 cassowaries Highlands food for piglets M. nagensium N E India Uma 2006 corm/rhizome cattle food M. acuminata, M. N E India Uma 2006 aurantiaca, M. balbisiana, Musa laterita Cheesman, M. nagensium, M. ornata Medicine juice/sap of astringent, styptic, many spp/cvs, widespread Burkill 1935, Christensen 2002, pseudostem, mouthwash, gargle, including E. glaucum, Hendrickx 2007, Heyne 1950, stalk of antipyretic, wound M. balbisiana, Musa Jacquat 1990, Liu et al. 2003, inflorescence, dressing, burns, basjoo von Siebold ex Y. Nelson et al. 2006, Perry 1980, roots and tonic, internal Iinuma, M. nagensium, Powell 1976, Reynolds & Fang flowers complaints, M. lasiocarpa 1940, Rumphius 1747, Sterly treatment/antidote 1997, Uma 2006, Uphof 1968, for diabetes, Watt 1972, Whistler 1992 gonorrhoea, kidney inflammation, mercury poisoning, drunkenness, abortifacient, hair tonic decoctions/ various internal many spp/cvs, including widespread Anderson 1993, Burkill 1935, infusions complaints, internal Musella lasiocarpa Heyne 1950, Jacquat 1990, Liu of leaves, hemorrhage, et al. 2003, Nelson et al. 2006, flowers, roots, burns, swellings Reynolds & Fang 1940, Rumphius pseudostem 1747, Watt 1972, WHO 1998 root ayurvedic M. acuminata, M. N E India Uma 2006 preparations aurantiaca, M. balbisiana, M. laterita, M. nagensium, M. ornata skin of insect bites edible cvs PNG Powell 1976 pseudostem tonic for humans M. ingens PNG Sterly 1997 and pigs Highlands fruit pulp and poultice edible Musa cvs Malaysia, Burkill 1935, Jacquat 1990, pounded skin PNG, Nelson et al. 2006, Sterly Polynesia, 1997, Whistler 1992 Thailand ripe fruit diarrhoea, edible Musa cvs India Watt 1972 dysentery seedy diarrhoea, Musa sp Mindanao Dampier 1927 fruit, ripe dysentery roasted fruit diarrhoea, edible Musa cvs Indonesia, Heyne 1950, Sterly 1997 dysentery PNG Highlands immature diarrhoea, M. balbisiana Indonesia Heyne 1950 seedy fruit, dysentery roasted www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol7/i1547-3465-07-179.pdf 186 Ethnobotany Research & Applications Category Part used Use Genus/species Location(s) Citations fruit skin tincture for internal M. balbisiana Cambodia Kham 2004 complaints young flower respiratory Musa sp PNG Powell 1976 buds complaints Highlands leaves dressings many spp/cvs, widespread Burkill 1935, Perry 1980, Sterly including M. aurantiaca, 1997, Uma 2006, Watt 1972 M. balbisiana, M. nagensium, M. ornata elephant medicine Musa acuminata Malaysia, Burkill 1935 ssp malaccensis Indonesia (Ridl.) Simmonds eaten as Musa spp PNG Powell 1976 abortifacient powdered boils China Reynolds & Fang 1940 leaves ash of anti-scorbutic, edible cvs, M. ornata N E India Uma 2006, Watt 1972 pseudostem, digestive, tonic corm, fruiting stalk and fruit peel Stimulant dry leaves cigarette papers, many spp/cvs, widespread Christensen 2002, Heyne cigars including Fe`i cvs, M. 1950, Jacquat 1990, Lentfer campestris, M. hirta 2003, MacDaniels 1947 Domestic Uses leaves wrapping material many spp/cvs, widespread Burkill 1935, Jacquat 1990, including M. balbisiana, Lentfer 2003, Nelson et al. M. maclayi, Musa 2006, Powell 1976, Rajah schizocarpa Simmonds 2008, Simmonds 1959, Sterly 1997, Watt 1972 lining and covering many spp/cvs, including widespread Burkill 1935, Jacquat 1990, cooking vessels M. ingens, M. peekelii Lentfer 2003, Nelson et al. and earth ovens 2006, Powell 1976, Simmonds 1959, Sterly 1997, Uma 2006 leaves, plates, dishes many spp/cvs widespread Burkill 1935, Heyne 1950, midribs and and mats Jacquat 1990, MacDaniels 1947, bracts Nelson et al. 2006, Powell 1976, Simmonds 1959, Sterly 1997 pseudostem raft, canoe rollers Musa spp, Fe`i cvs N E India, MacDaniels 1947, Nelson Micronesia, et al. 2006, Powell 1976, PNG, Uma 2006, Williams 1930 Polynesia children’s toy, edible Musa cvs PNG Sterly 1997 toboggan Highlands outer skin of containers many spp/cvs PNG, Kocher Schmid 1991, Sterly pseudostem Mindanao 1997, Yen & Gutierrez 1976 seedy fruit beer additive Eumusa spp N E India Uma 2006 ash from laundry/mordant many spp/cvs India, Burkill 1935, Simmonds 1959, burnt Malaysia, Uma 2006, Watt 1972 pseudostem, Thailand leaves, corm www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol7/i1547-3465-07-179.pdf Kennedy - Bananas and People in the Homeland of Genus Musa: 187 Not just pretty fruit Category Part used Use Genus/species Location(s) Citations juice of fruit ink Burkill 1935 juice/sap from dye/stain for edible Musa cvs Indonesia, Heyne 1950, Nelson et al. 2006, pseudostem bamboo/rattan, Polynesia Simmonds 1959, Uphof 1968 matting cleaning knives edible Musa cvs PNG Kocher Schmid 1991 Shelter leaves roofing and walls, many spp/cvs, including widespread Burkill 1935, Lentfer 2003, insulation and M. ingens, M. schizocarpa Nelson et al. 2006, Powell draft-proofing 1976, Simmonds 1959, Sterly 1997, Watt 1972 temporary shelters M. ingens PNG Lentfer 2003, Sterly 1997 Highlands umbrella/raincoat many spp/cvs widespread Burkill 1935, Simmonds 1959 petiole fiber thatch edible Musa cvs Hawaii Neal 1965 Cordage petiole and traditional cordage many spp/cvs, including widespread Burkill 1935, Heyne 1950, pseudostem and string Musa alinsanaya Powell 1976, Rumphius 1747, R.V.Valmayor, M. Simmonds 1959, Sterly 1997, balbisiana, Musa textilis Uphof 1968, Valmayor 2001, Watt Née, E. glaucum 1972, Yen & Gutierrez 1976 pseudostem industrial rope M. textilis Philippines Burkill 1935, Purseglove 1975, Watt 1972 leaves rope M. lasiocarpa Yunnan Liu et al. 2003 string Musa sp Borneo Christensen 2002 Clothing leaves dried, shredded many spp/cvs PNG, Deacon 1934, Malinowski 1935, for skirts, capes, Vanuatu Powell 1976, Weiner 1976 loin-cloths pseudostem fiber for skirts, many spp/cvs Hawaii, PNG Nelson et al. 2006, Powell 1976 skin for belts Textiles pseudostem, fiber for cloth many spp/cvs, Batanes, Dampier 1927, Evans 1922, petiole production especially M. textilis Borneo, Fraser-Lu 1988, Hendrickx and M. balbisiana S. China, 2007, Kuhn 1988, Lu & Huang Luzon, 1986, Reynolds & Fang 1940, Micronesia, Rubinstein & Limol 2007, Mindanao, Rumphius 1747, Stinchecum 2007 Ryukyus, Sangihe/ Talaud, Solomon Islands, Vietnam, Visayas juice/sap dye/stain for edible Musa cvs India, Heyne 1950, Rubinstein & Limol from stalk of yarn/cloth Indonesia, 2007, Rumphius 1747, Watt 1972 inflorescence, Micronesia pseudostem dye/stain for Fe`i cvs PNG, Burkill 1935, Whistler 2000 and suckers tapa cloth Samoa www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol7/i1547-3465-07-179.pdf 188 Ethnobotany Research & Applications Category Part used Use Genus/species Location(s) Citations pseudostem/ resist in tie-dying edible Musa cvs E. Burkill 1935, Fraser-Lu petiole fiber, Indonesia, 1988, Hendrickx 2007 skin of petiole Malaysia, Ryukyus, Thailand skin of decorative element Fe`i and other edible cvs Indonesia, Heyne 1950, MacDaniels pseudostem in matting Polynesia 1947, Neal 1965, Nelson et al. 2006, Whistler 2000 ash from mordant edible Musa cvs India Burkill 1935 burnt pseudostem, leaves, corm wax from resist in batik M. acuminata ssp/var Java Burkill 1935, Heyne 1950, bract and leaf cloth production Nakai 1948, Simmonds 1959 Paper-making pseudostem fine and coarse many spp/cvs widespread Burkill 1935, Hendrickx 2007, paper, industrial Sharrock 1996, Watt 1972 filters, tea bags juice/sap varnish for paper M. balbisiana Ryukyus Hendrickx 2007 of corm Ornamental whole plant horticultural many spp/cvs widespread Constantine 1999-2008 inflorescence horticultural many spp/cvs widespread Constantine 1999-2008 flowers garnish for food M. peekelii PNG Lentfer 2003 leaves body decoration many spp/cvs PNG, Lentfer 2003, Powell Polynesia 1976, Whistler 2000 dried leaves garlands many spp/cvs widespread Burkill 1935 seeds strung as beads, Musa and Ensete spp Philippines, Anderson 1993, Burkill 1935, ornaments PNG, N. Lentfer 2003, Powell 1976, Thailand Simmonds 1959, Williams 1930 ash tattooing edible Musa cvs Polynesia Nelson et al. 2006 Ceremonial, Magic and Ritual whole plant object of edible Musa cvs India, Endicott 1979, Kagy 1998, veneration, symbol Madagascar, Keller 2008, Watt 1972, of plenty, metaphor Malaysia, Williams 1936, Williams 1941 for human New mortality, totem Caledonia, PNG, marker of graves M. ingens PNG Argent 1979 many rituals, edible Musa cvs Malaysia, Burkill 1935, Kocher Schmid 1991, exorcism, garden PNG, Malinowski 1935, Nelson et al. magic, planted Polynesia 2006, Powell 1976, Sterly 1997 as hunting decoy, protective fruiting stalk ceremonial display edible Musa cvs India, Bali, Burkill 1935, Watt 1972 Malaysia www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol7/i1547-3465-07-179.pdf Kennedy - Bananas and People in the Homeland of Genus Musa: 189 Not just pretty fruit Category Part used Use Genus/species Location(s) Citations pseudostem peace making edible Musa cvs PNG Sterly 1997 ceremony Highlands funerary effigy edible Musa cvs New Ireland, Denner 2006, Peltier 2006 PNG leaves rituals, chewed edible Musa cvs PNG Malinowski 1935, Powell in funeral rites, 1976, Sterly 1997 worn during dance performance, rain magic ceremonies M. acuminata, M. hirta N. Thailand, Anderson 1993, Christensen and offerings Borneo 2002, Rajah 2008 scraped, dried edible Musa cv Trobriand Weiner 1976 bundles produced Islands, and exchanged as PNG women’s wealth leaf sheath divination edible Musa cv PNG Kocher Schmid 1991 fruit offerings, in rites edible Musa cvs widespread Burkill 1935, Hla Pe 1978, of passage Kocher Schmid 1991, Rajah 2008, Simmonds 1959, Sterly 1997, Watt 1972 stalk surrogate human edible Musa cvs Hawaii, Neal 1965, Nelson et al. 2006 Tahiti juice/sap of cleansing ritual edible Musa cvs PNG Sterly 1997 pseudostem for brides Highlands paint/dye for Fe`i cvs PNG Lentfer 2003 funerary masks skin of magic to strengthen M. ingens PNG Sterly 1997 pseudostem pigs and children Highlands shoot magic M. ingens PNG Sterly 1997 Highlands tions are unequivocally with the Indo-Malesian homeland. fruit. The distortion is completely explicable, given that There is an extensive literature on African uses of Ensete Simmonds’ enormous contribution to cytogenetic research (see Brandt et al. 1997, Constantine 1999-2008, Shigeta on banana edibility was aimed at the improvement of fruit- 1996, Tsehaye & Kebebew 2006 for references). ing bananas. Nevertheless, it encourages ignorance, or amnesia, about other important aspects of the long histo- Recognition of the usefulness of Musaceae was part of ry of entanglement of people and Musaceae. When Sim- the basis of Sauer’s (1952) hypothesis that agriculture in monds was considering such matters, the study of South- Southeast Asia began with the vegetative propagation of east Asian prehistory had neither the tools to investigate fiber and dye plants, followed by perennial food plants. past interrelationships of people and plants, nor any ex- Simmonds, accepting this part of Sauer’s proposal, saw pectation of the great time depth involved. the recognition of the useful properties of translocated wild bananas by early Southeast Asians as the context in The very widespread use of Musa species for fiber has which ‘the first signs of parthenocarpy and sterility [were certainly led in some places in directions that parallel seized upon] as providing a useful addition to an already those of fruiting bananas, with clonal reproduction of se- considerable repertoire of virtues’, during which ‘the plants lected forms as well as planting from seed. In the Phil- were transformed from jungle weeds into a highly produc- ippines, production of Musa textilis Née (Manila hemp, tive crop’ (Simmonds 1962:132). abacá), almost certainly a complex cultigen rather than a genuine wild species, was increased by Spanish decree The problem with this formulation is the shift of attention in the mid-eighteenth century, and developed to industri- away from all useful aspects of Musaceae except edible al scale under later American and Japanese occupations, www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol7/i1547-3465-07-179.pdf 190 Ethnobotany Research & Applications with production spreading to other countries (Hendrickx identity (Figure 7). Popularized in Japan by a Japanese 2007, Purseglove 1975, Simmonds 1962). In the Philip- craft movement as an emblem of an idealized Okinawan pines, production continues, despite the competition from past, the finest bashōfu cloth produced in Okinawa now synthetic fibers (Figure 6). commands high prices in mainland Japan — more than US$20,000 for a kimono length. The plant is not Musa Production of other species for fiber has also been notable. basjoo von Siebold ex Y. Iinuma as is commonly claimed For example, bashōfu cloth produced in Okinawa Prefec- (though that species does produce fiber), but Musa balbi- ture was sent as tribute to China in the late sixteenth cen- siana Colla (Hendrickx 2007, Stinchecum 2007). tury, and is now a strong marker of a resurgent Okinawan A B C Figure 6. Production of abacá from Musa textilis Née, Aklan, Panay, Philippines: A. Harvesting in a cultivation area; B. Separating layers of pseudostem; C. Drying fiber. Photos by Juergen Steger, SachsenLeinen, Waldenburg, Germany. www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol7/i1547-3465-07-179.pdf Kennedy - Bananas and People in the Homeland of Genus Musa: 191 Not just pretty fruit Figure 7. Winding thread of bashō fibre (from the inner pseudostem of Musa balbisiana Colla), the Okinawan weaver Yonemori Tokuko poses wearing a kimono of the same fibre, Maezato village, Ishigaki Island, Okinawa, 1983. Photo by Amanda Mayer Stinchecum, New York. In the Trobriand Islands, Milne Bay Province, Papua New dwindled into insignificance as the fruit became globally Guinea, women manufacture bundles and skirts from ba- important. In the Philippines, abacá production, no longer nana leaves by a laborious process involving scraping important for rope, supports a burgeoning craft industry. In over carved wooden boards, producing distinctive decora- India, banana stems are processed for fiber and exported tive imprints, followed by sun-bleaching, drying and stor- to Nepal, where knitting yarn is spun for sale in the West, age (K. Lepani pers. comm.) (Figure 8). These valuables marketed in craft shops as ‘banana silk’. The cost of Oki- are produced and exchanged only by women, and their nawan bashōfu escalates. In the Trobriands, women con- labour in turning banana leaves into ‘women’s wealth’ is tinue to produce banana leaf bundles, and young women central to women’s control of the timeless cosmological of Fais learn to weave machi. domain which ensures the continuation of Trobriand so- cial identity. Their role counterbalances the power of men Modern industries, whether on a huge scale, like the in the quotidian world, to seek renown through the famous growing of Cavendish bananas for world trade, or the high kula exchanges (Weiner 1976, 1980). The use of banana value but small-scale production of bashōfu cloth in Oki- fiber in textile production is widespread in the Asia-Pacific nawa, have grown from very deep roots. The industrial region, and such textiles are often highly valued (Figure separation of fruit and fiber production should not blind us 9) (Fraser-Lu 1988, Hamilton 2007, Hendrickx 2007, Jolly to the likelihood that particular Musa species in the past 1992, Rubinstein & Limol 2007, Weiner 1986). have furnished multiple products. Nevertheless, some specialization or differentiation is also likely, and this im- Conclusion plies that selection may have taken different directions in different places and times. The example of the Ethiopian These examples show that Indo-Malesian uses of Musace- Ensete ventricosum (Welw.) Cheesman, domesticated as ae other than edible fruit are neither minor, nor neces- a starch staple, is well known (Brandt et al. 1997, Purse- sarily secondary to production of the fruit. They have not glove 1975). We should not rule out the possibility that www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol7/i1547-3465-07-179.pdf 192 Ethnobotany Research & Applications B A C D E F Figure 8. Banana leaf fiber is central to women’s wealth (doba) in the Trobriand Islands, Milne Bay Province, PNG: A. The strips show decorative imprints; B. Tying prepared banana leaf strips into bundles; C. Close-up of piled bundles; D. Preparing bundles in readiness for a ceremony; E. Piles of doba in front of a yam house during a ceremonial exchange; F. Young women’s skirts are also produced from banana leaf strips. Photos by Mark Mosko, Anthropology Department, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University. parallel selection for starch production in the corm and New Caledonian Musa plant, described as having a ‘glau- pseudostem of Malesian Musa species may also have oc- cous, violet stem and a turnip-like rhizome which, when curred in the past. There is at least one example of se- cooked, resembles a yam in taste’ (Simmonds 1959:267 lection for enhanced starch storage in the rhizome of a citing Baker 1894). www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol7/i1547-3465-07-179.pdf Kennedy - Bananas and People in the Homeland of Genus Musa: 193 Not just pretty fruit A B Figure 9. On Fais, in the western Caroline Islands of Micronesia, prestigious traditional textiles called machi are still woven. Fiber from Musa cultivars forms the warp and weft, with decorative supplementary weft of Hibiscus sp. fiber. The ritual value of machi derives from their association with chieftainship. A. Weaving on a back-strap loom; B. Machi. Photos by Michiko Intoh, National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka, Japan. We should not, therefore, interpret archaeobotanical dis- Musa species may also have been vegetatively propa- coveries of banana parts by reference solely to what we gated. There is no reason to suppose that parthenocarpic know of the development of edibility in fruit. The cultiva- fruit alone called forth propagation by vegetative planting. tion of M. textilis and M. balbisiana for fiber show that Although parthenocarpy could not have spread without seedy fruit is not necessarily an indication of ‘wildness’. the reinforcement of vegetative propagation, other desir- While parthenocarpy is the key to edibility of fruit, and its able characteristics which did not interfere so directly with reproduction and transmission certainly depended upon fertility could also be propagated in the same way. Thus, vegetative propagation, other desirable characteristics of parthenocarpic forms of Musa species that on present evi- www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol7/i1547-3465-07-179.pdf 194 Ethnobotany Research & Applications dence arose only on the eastern edge of Malesia may have C. Turney. 2007. The ‘human revolution’ in lowland tropical spread west into areas where other useful Musa species Southeast Asia: The antiquity and behavior of anatomically were already well established in the domain of humans. modern humans at Niah Cave (Sarawak, Borneo). Journal The new fruit cultivars, and those that then developed from of Human Evolution 52:243-261. interspecific and intersubspecific hybridization, may thus have been an addition to the repertoire of banana cultiva- Brandt, S.A., A. Spring, C. Hiebsch, J.T. McCabe, E. Tabo- tion, rather than an innovation or replacement. gie, M. Diro, G. Wolde-Michael, G. Yntiso, M. Shigeta & S. Tesfaye. 1997. The ‘Tree Against Hunger’: Enset-based ag- Acknowledgements ricultural systems in Ethiopia. American Association for the Advancement of Science, Awassa Agricultural Research Thanks to Tim Bayliss-Smith, Doreen Bowdery, Bill Clarke, Center, Kyoto University Center for African Area Studies, David Constantine, Edmond De Langhe, Tim Denham, Pe- and University of Florida, Washington, DC. www.aaas.org/ ter Dwyer, Roy Ellen, James Fox, Jack Golson, Terry Hays, international/africa/enset/enset.pdf Robin Hide, Katherine Lepani, Peter Matthews, Doyle McKey, Mylien T. Nguyen, Rintaro Ono, Luc Vrydaghs, and Burkill, I.H. 1935. A Dictionary of the Economic Products of Douglas Yen for their encouragement and assistance; and the Malay Peninsula. Crown Agents for the Colonies, Lon- to Jeff Daniells, Michiko Intoh, Christiane Jacquat, Mark don. Mosko, Juergen Steger, Amanda Stinchecum and Shu Suehiro for their generosity in allowing me to reproduce Carreel, F., D. González de Léon, P. Lagoda, C. Lanaud, C. their photographs. Jenny, J.P. Horry & H. Tézenas du Montcel. 2002. Ascer- taining maternal and paternal lineage within Musa by chlo- roplast and mitochondrial DNA RFLP analyses. Genome Literature Cited 45:679-692. Anderson, E.F. 1993. Plants and People of the Golden Tri- angle: Ethnobotany of the hill tribes of Northern Thailand. Christensen, H. 2002. Ethnobotany of the Iban and Kelabit. Dioscorides Press, Portland, Oregon. Denmark and Sarawak, Malaysia, University of Aarhus, NEPCon and Forest Department, Sarawak. Argent, G. 1979. New Guinea bananas — a problematic genetic resource. Pp. 57-70 in Biological Aspects of Plant Constantine, D. 1999-2008. The Musaceae: An annotated Genetic Resource Conservation in South-East Asia. Trans- list of the species of Ensete, Musa and Musella. www.us- actions of the Fifth Aberdeen-Hull Symposium on Malesian ers.globalnet.co.uk/~drc/musaceae.htm. (Last accessed Ecology. Edited by K. Jong. Miscellaneous Series 21, De- 20.1.2009). partment of Geography, University of Hull, and Institute for South-East Asian Biology, University of Aberdeen. Dampier, W. 1927. A New Voyage Round the World. Argo- naut Press, London. (First published 1697.) Arnaud, E. & J.-P. Horry. 1997. Editors of Musalogue: A catalogue of Musa germplasm. Papua New Guinea collect- Dassanayake, M.D. & W.D. Clayton. 2000. Editors of A Re- ing expeditions, 1988-1989. International Network for the vised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon. Volume XIV. A.A. Improvement of Banana and Plantain, Montpellier. Balkema, Rotterdam. Bailey, F.M. 1900. A New Guinea food plant. Queensland Deacon, A.B. 1934. Malekula: A vanishing people in the Agricultural Journal 7:442. New Hebrides. Routledge & Sons, London. Baker, J.G. 1894. Species and principal varieties of Musa. Denner, A. 2006. Ephemeral art. Pp. 138-141 in New Ire- Kew Bulletin 1894:119-314. land: Art of the South Pacific. Edited by M. Gunn & P. Pel- tier. Musée du Quai Branly, Paris & 5 Continents Editions, Barker, G. 2005. The archaeology of foraging and farming Milan. at Niah Cave, Sarawak. Asian Perspectives 44:90-106. De Langhe, E., L. Vrydaghs, P. de Maret, X. Perrier & T. Barker, G., T. Reynolds & D. Gilbertson. 2005. The human Denham. 2009. Why bananas matter: An introduction to use of caves in peninsular and island Southeast Asia: Re- the history of banana domestication. Ethnobotany Re- search themes. Asian Perspectives 44:1-15. search and Applications 7:165-177. Barker G, H. Barton, M. Bird, P. Daly, I. Datan, A. Dykes, De Langhe, E., D. Wattanachaiyingcharoen, H. Volkaert L. Farr, D. Gilbertson, B. Harrisson, C. Hunt, T. Higham, L. & S. Piyapitchard. 2000. Biodiversity of wild Musaceae in Kealhofer, J. Krigbaum, H. Lewis, S. McLaren, V. Paz, A. Northern Thailand. Pp. 71-83 in Advancing Banana and Pike, P. Piper, B. Pyatt, R. Rabett, T. Reynolds, J. Rose, Plantain R and D in Asia and the Pacific. Edited by A.B. G. Rushworth, M. Stephens, C. Stringer, J. Thompson & Molina & V.N. Roa. Proceedings of the 9th INIPAB-ASP- www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol7/i1547-3465-07-179.pdf Kennedy - Bananas and People in the Homeland of Genus Musa: 195 Not just pretty fruit NET Regional Advisory Committee meeting. INIBAP-Asia Jacquat, C. 1990. Plants from the Markets of Thailand. and the Pacific Network, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. Editions Duang Kamol, Bangkok, Thailand. Endicott, K.M. 1979. Batek Negrito Religion: The world- Jolly, M. 1992. Banana leaf bundles and skirts: A Pacif- view and rituals of a hunting and gathering people of pen- ic Penelope’s web? Pp. 38-64 in History and Tradition in insular Malaysia. Clarendon Press, Oxford. Melanesian Anthropology. Edited by J.G. Carrier. Univer- sity of California Press, Berkeley, Los Angeles, Oxford. Evans, I.H.N. 1922. Among Primitive Peoples in Borneo. Seeley, Service, London. Kagy, V. 1998. The food, socioeconomic and cultural im- portance of banana in Kanak society in New Caledonia. Fraser-Lu, S. 1988. Handwoven Textiles of South-East InfoMusa 7:22-24. Asia. Oxford University Press, Singapore, Oxford. Kealhofer, L. 2003. Looking into the gap: Land use and Groube, L. 1989. The taming of the rainforest: A model the tropical forests of South Thailand. Asian Perspectives for late Pleistocene forest exploitation in New Guinea. Pp. 42:72-95. 292-304 in Foraging and Farming: The evolution of plant exploitation. Edited by D. Harris & G.C. Hillman. Unwin Keller, E. 2008. The banana plant and the moon: Conser- Hyman, London. vation and the Malagasy ethos of life in Masoala, Mada- gascar. American Ethnologist 35:650-664. Häkkinen, M. 2006. Musa lawitiensis Nasution & Supard. (Musaceae) and its intraspecific taxa in Borneo. Adanso- Kennedy, J. 2008. Pacific bananas: Complex origins, mul- nia 28:55-65. tiple dispersals? Asian Perspectives 47:75-94. Häkkinen, M. & H. Väre. 2008. Typification and check-list Kennedy, J. n.d. Bananas: Towards a revised prehistory. of Musa L. names (Musaceae) with nomenclatural notes. in From Foragers to Farmers: Gordon C. Hillman fest- Adansonia série 3 30:63-112. schrift. Edited by A.S. Fairbairn & E. Weiss. Oxbow, Ox- ford. In press. Häkkinen, M. & H. Wang. 2007. New species and variety of Musa (Musaceae) from Yunnan, China. Novon 17:440- Kham, L. 2004. Medicinal Plants of Cambodia: Habitat, 446. chemical constituents and ethnobotanical uses. Bendigo Scientific Press, Bendigo, Australia. Häkkinen, M., H. Wang & X.-J. Ge. 2008. Musa itinerans (Musaceae) and its intraspecific taxa in China. Novon Kocher Schmid, C. 1991. Of People and Plants: A botani- 18:50-60. cal ethnography of Nokopo village, Madang and Morobe Provinces, Papua New Guinea. Basler Beiträge zur Eth- Hamilton, R.W. 2007. Bast and leaf fibers in the Asia-Pa- nologie, Band 33. Basel, Ethnologisches Seminar der cific region. Pp. 25-39 in Material Choices: Refashioning Universität und Museum für Völkerkunde. bast and leaf fibers in Asia and the Pacific. Edited by R.W. Hamilton & B.L. Milgram. Fowler Museum, University of Kuhn, D. 1988. Textile Technology: Spinning and reel- California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles. ing. chemistry and chemical technology. Volume 5, Part 9. Science and Civilisation in China. Edited by J. Needham. Hays, T.E. 1991. Interest, use, and interest in uses in folk Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. biology. Pp. 109-114 in Man and a Half: Essays in Pacific anthropology and ethnobiology in honour of Ralph Bul- Latinis, D.K. 2000. The development of subsistence sys- mer. Edited by A. Pawley. Memoir 48, The Polynesian So- tem models for Island Southeast Asia and Near Oceania: ciety, Auckland. The nature and role of arboriculture and arboreal-based economies. World Archaeology 32:41-67. Hendrickx, K. 2007. The Origins of Banana-Fibre Cloth in the Ryukyus, Japan. Leuven University Press, Leuven. Lentfer, C.J. 2003. Tracing Antiquity of Banana Cultivation in Papua New Guinea: Report on collection of modern ref- Heyne, K. 1950. De Nuttige Planten van Indonesie. 3rd erence material from Papua New Guinea in 2002. Unpub- edition. N.V. Uitgeverij W. Van Hoeve, ‘s-Gravenhage, lished report prepared for the Pacific Biological Founda- Bandung. (First published 1921.) tion, Sydney, Australia. Hla Pe. 1978. Burmese attitudes to plants and animals. Liu, A.Z., W.J. Kress & C.L. Long. 2003. The ethnobotany Pp. 88-104 in Natural Symbols in South East Asia. Ed- of Musella lasiocarpa (Musaceae), an endemic plant of ited by G.B. Milner. School of Oriental and African Stud- southwest China. Economic Botany 57:279-281. ies, London. www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol7/i1547-3465-07-179.pdf 196 Ethnobotany Research & Applications Long, C., S. Ahmed, X. Wang, Y. Liu, B. Long, C. Yang, Ochse, J.J. 1977. Vegetables of the Dutch East Indies. Y. Shi, X. Li & R. Guo. 2008. Why Musella lasiocarpa Australian National University Press, Canberra. (First (Musaceae) is used in southwest China to feed pigs. Eco- published in Dutch, 1931.) nomic Botany 62:182-186. Pavlides, C. & C. Gosden. 1994. 35,000-year-old sites in Lu, G.-D. & H.-T. Huang. 1986. Botany, Biology and Bio- the rain forests of West New Britain, Papua New Guinea. logical Technology. Volume 6, Part 1. Science and Civili- Antiquity 68:604-610. sation in China. Edited by J. Needham. Cambridge Uni- versity Press, Cambridge. Peltier, P. 2006. Lihir Islands. Pp. 156-157 in New Ireland: Art of the South Pacific. Edited by M. Gunn & P. Peltier. MacDaniels, L.H. 1947. A Study of the Fe`i Banana and its Musée du Quai Branly, Paris & 5 Continents Editions, Mi- Distribution with reference to Polynesian Migrations. B.P. lan. Bishop Museum Bulletin 190, Bishop Museum Press, Ho- nolulu. Perrier X., F. Bakry, F. Carreel, Ch. Jenny, J.P. Horry, V. Lebot & I. Hippolyte. 2009. Combining biological ap- Malinowski, B. 1935. Coral Gardens and their Magic. proaches to shed light on the evolution of edible bananas. American Book Company, New York, Cincinnati, Chica- Ethnobotany Research and Applications 7:199-216. go. Perry, L.M. 1980. Medicinal Plants of East and Southeast Massal, E. & J. Barrau, J. 1956. Food Plants of the South Asia. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Seas. Technical Paper 94, South Pacific Commission, Noumea. Petir, A., D. Materem, P. Yaponmg, S. Mukarek, M. Okira & T. Platts-Mills. 1998. Useful Plants of Salemben Village, Mercader, J. 2003. Introduction: The Palaeolithic settle- Madang Province, Papua New Guinea. The Christensen ment of rain forests. Pp. 1-31 in Under the Canopy: The Research Institute Publication No 13, Christensen Re- archaeology of tropical rain forests. Edited by J. Mercader. search Institute, Madang. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey. Powell, J.M. 1976. Ethnobotany. Pp. 106-183 in New Mogina, J. 2002. Changing Knowledge of Plants in Tran- Guinea Vegetation. Edited by K. Paijmans. Australian Na- sitional Societies at Milne Bay, Papua New Guinea. Un- tional University Press, Canberra. published Ph.D. Thesis, Australian National University, Canberra. Purseglove, J.W. 1975. Tropical Crops: Monocotyledons. 2nd impression. Halsted Press, New York. Nakai, T. 1948. The kind of banana being wild or cultivated in west-Java, and their belongings. Bulletin of the Tokyo Rajah, A. 2008. Remaining Karen: A study of cultural re- Science Museum 22:5-21 production and the maintenance of identity. ANU E Press, Canberra. Neal, M.C. 1965. In Gardens of Hawaii. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Special Publication 50, Bishop Museum Press, Reynolds, P.K. & C.Y. Fang. 1940. The banana in Chinese Honolulu. literature. Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 5:165–181. Nelson, S.C., R.C. Ploetz & A.K. Kepler. 2006. Musa spe- Rubinstein, D. & S. Limol. 2007. Reviving the sacred cies (bananas and plantains), ver. 2.2. In Species Pro- machi: A chiefly weaving from Fais Island, Micronesia. Pp. files for Pacific Island Agroforestry. Edited by C.R. Elev- 155-165 in Material Choices: Refashioning bast and leaf itch. Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR), Hōlualoa, fibers in Asia and the Pacific. Edited by R.W. Hamilton & Hawai‘i. www.traditionaltree.org. B.L. Milgram. Fowler Museum, UCLA, Los Angeles. Nguyen, M.T. 2006. Insertions and deletions: Evolution in Rumphius, G.E. 1747. Herbarium Amboinense. Vol- the assemblage of Vietnamese food plants. Ethnobotany ume 5, Book 8. De plantis agens domesticis, tam victui, Research and Applications 4:175-201. quam medicinae, et decori inservientibus. F. Changuion, H. Uytwerf, Amsterdam & P. Gosse, J. Neaulme, A. Mo- Noweg, T., A.R. Abdullah & D. Nidang. 2003. Forest Plants etjens, A. van Dole, The Hague. as Vegetables for Communities Bordering the Crocker Range National Park. ASEAN Review of Biodiversity and Sauer, C.O. 1952. Agricultural Origins and Dispersals: Environmental Conservation (ARBEC). www.arbec.com. The domestication of animals and foodstuffs. American my/pdf/art3janmar03.pdf Geographical Society, New York. www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol7/i1547-3465-07-179.pdf Kennedy - Bananas and People in the Homeland of Genus Musa: 197 Not just pretty fruit Sharrock, S. 1996. Uses of Musa. Focus Paper 3, INIBAP Weiner, A. 1976. Women of Value, Men of Renown: New Annual Report. International Network for the Improvement perspectives in Trobriand exchange. University of Texas of Banana and Plantain, Montpellier. Press, Austin. Shigeta, M. 1996. Creating landrace diversity: The case Weiner, A. 1980. Stability in banana leaves: Colonization of the Ari people and enset (Ensete ventricosum) in Ethio- and women in Kiriwina, Trobriand Islands. Pp. 270-293 in pia. Pp. 233-268 in Redefining Nature: Ecology, culture Women and Colonization: Anthropological perspectives. and domestication. Edited by R. Ellen & K. Fukui. Berg, Edited by M. Etienne & E. Leacock. J.F. Bergin, New Oxford. York. Sillitoe, P. 1983. Roots of the Earth: Crops in the High- Weiner, A. 1986. Forgotten wealth: Cloth and women’s lands of Papua New Guinea. New South Wales Press, production in the Pacific. Pp. 96-110 in Women’s Work: Kensington, Australia. Development and the division of labour by gender. Ed- ited by E. Leacock, H.I. Safa. Bergin & Garvey, Massa- Simmonds, N.W. 1956. Botanical results of the banana chusetts. collecting expedition, 1954-5. Kew Bulletin 11:463-489. Whistler, W.A. 1992. Polynesian Herbal Medicine. Nation- Simmonds, N.W. 1959. Bananas. Longmans, Green & al Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii. Co., London. Whistler, W.A. 2000. Plants in Samoan Culture: The eth- Simmonds, N.W. 1962. The Evolution of the Bananas. nobotany of Samoa. Isle Botanica, Hawaii. Longmans, Green & Co., London. Whitmore, T.C. 1984. Tropical Rain Forests of the Far Sterly, J. 1997. Simbu Plant Lore: Plants used by the peo- East. Second edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford. ple in the central highlands of New Guinea. Dietrich Re- imer, Berlin. Williams, F.E. 1930. Orokaiva Society. Oxford University Press, London. Stinchecum, A.M. 2007. Bashōfu, the Mingei movement and the creation of a new Okinawa. Pp. 105-117 in Ma- Williams, F.E. 1936. Papuans of the Trans-Fly. Oxford terial Choices: Refashioning bast and leaf fibers in Asia University Press, London. and the Pacific. Edited by R.W. Hamilton & B.L. Milgram. Fowler Museum, UCLA, Los Angeles. Williams, F.E. 1941. Natives of Lake Kutubu, Papua. Oce- ania Monographs 6. Australian National Research Coun- Tsehaye, Y. & F. Kebebew. 2006. Diversity and cultural cil, Sydney. use of enset (Ensete ventricosum (Welw.) Cheesman) in Bonga in situ conservation site, Ethiopia. Ethnobotany World Health Organisation (WHO) 1998. Medicinal Plants Research and Applications 4:147-157. in the South Pacific. WHO, Manila. Uma, S. 2006. Farmers’ Knowledge of Wild Musa in India. Wu, D & W.J. Kress. 2000. Musaceae. Pp. 297-313 in Flo- FAO, Rome. ra of China. Volume 24 (Flagellariaceae through Maran- taceae). Edited by Z.Y. Wu & P.H. Raven. Science Press, Uphof, J.C.T. 1968. Dictionary of Economic Plants. J. Beijing, & Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. Louis. Kramer, Lehre. Yen, D.E. & H.G. Gutierrez. 1976. The ethnobotany of the Valmayor, R.V. 2001. Classification and characterization Tasaday: I. The useful plants. Pp. 97-136 in Further Stud- of Musa exotica, M. alinsanaya and M. acuminata ssp. er- ies on the Tasaday. Edited by D.E. Yen & J. Nance. Pana- rans. Infomusa 10:35-39. min Foundation Research Series 2, Makati, Philippines. Watt, G. 1972. Dictionary of the Economic Products of In- dia. Volume 5. Linum to Oyster. Periodical Experts, Delhi. (First published 1891.) www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol7/i1547-3465-07-179.pdf 198 Ethnobotany Research & Applications www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol7/i1547-3465-07-179.pdf